46 Chapter 46 — HIV/AIDS Endocrine Disorders(HIV/AIDS 相關內分泌疾病)

本章定位:Williams 15e 把 HIV 病人的內分泌異常整合在 ART era 的範式下——adrenal、gonadal、thyroid、bone、metabolic、CV 全身軸 dysfunction。對 endocrinologist 而言這章是「HIV 從致命病轉成 chronic disease 後,內分泌 sequelae + 治療相關副作用 + 老化加速」整合 framework。

全球 38.4 million PWH(people with HIV),美國 1.2+ million;HIV 病人現多 70+ 歲長期 survivor,面臨「ART 衍生」+ 「老化加速」+ 「慢性發炎」三軸內分泌問題

與其他章 cross-ref: - Ch 13(Adrenal Cortex) — Adrenal insufficiency in HIV + opportunistic infection - Ch 17(Testes) — Male hypogonadism;testosterone replacement - Ch 25(Female Reproductive) — Female gonadal dysfunction;POI in HIV - Ch 29(Osteoporosis) — Bone loss + ART-related + AVN - Ch 33(T2DM Insulin Resistance) — Adiposopathy + ART metabolic effects - Ch 38(Complications) — Atherosclerosis + 慢性發炎;anti-inflammatory CV strategies - Ch 40(Obesity) — ART-related weight gain(INSTI-related) - Ch 41(Lipoprotein) — HIV dyslipidemia 治療 statin + ART interaction - Ch 11(Hypothyroidism) — HIV-related thyroid dysfunction(多後 ART era 改善)

2020-2025 關鍵更新(必背): 1. 整合酶轉移抑制劑 (INSTI) — Dolutegravir / Bictegravir / Raltegravir 體重增加:DAWNING、ADVANCE、NAMSAL trials 顯示 INSTI 比 PI 與 NNRTI 多 ~3-5 kg weight gain over 1-2 yr;女性 + 黑人 + TAF(tenofovir alafenamide)共用最顯著。 2. Tenofovir Alafenamide (TAF) 取代 Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate (TDF) 後:bone density 改善 + lipid 反而 ↑(vs TDF)+ weight gain 增。 3. REPRIEVE trial 2023(NEJM Grinspoon)— Pitavastatin 4 mg in HIV with low-to-moderate ASCVD risk → ↓ MACE 35%(primary prevention!);改變 HIV 病人 statin paradigm — 多 PWH 即使 LDL 不高也應 statin。 4. Tesamorelin (Egrifta) FDA:GHRH analogue → ↓ visceral abdominal fat in HIV-related lipodystrophy;獨特適應症藥(過去 d-drug 所致 lipoatrophy 已減少 with modern ART)。 5. AIDS wasting 已罕見 in modern ART era;過去 anabolic(testosterone、oxandrolone、growth hormone)adjuncts 多歷史。 6. HIV-related bone disease:DEXA 推薦從 ≥ 50 歲(postmenopausal women + ≥ 40 with risks) 起年度;bisphosphonate / denosumab in osteoporosis;ART 起始前 bisphosphonate 預防 trials。 7. HIV adrenal insufficiency 多 secondary(顱腦感染、ART 互動、glucocorticoid 治療 opportunistic infection 後 HPA 抑制);primary 多 CMV / mycobacterial / fungal。 8. Male hypogonadism in HIV 30-50%;multifactorial(chronic illness、SHBG、weight loss、testicular involvement、opioid use、depression)。 9. 2022 IAS-USA + DHHS guideline — HIV care 整合 endocrine surveillance:CV risk stratification + DEXA + lipid + glucose 為 routine。 10. Long-acting cabotegravir + rilpivirine (Cabenuva) IM monthly — 改變 ART delivery;對 metabolic 影響仍累積數據。

本章在台灣專科考的重點分布:HIV adrenal insufficiency mechanism / Male hypogonadism multifactorial / HIV bone loss + ART effects / DM in PWH risk / REPRIEVE trial pitavastatin paradigm shift / Lipodystrophy + Tesamorelin / INSTI weight gain / 老化加速 / 慢性發炎 + atherosclerosis / Drug interaction(statin + PI / cobicistat)。


46.1 🔥 1-Page Summary(16 核心重點,看完抓 70%)

16 點是「軸 + 機轉 + 分病 + 治療整合 + ART era + 老化」維度乘下來的最少必備量。

46.1.1 流行病學與整體框架(2 點)

  1. 流行:全球 38.4 million PWH;美國 1.2+ million;ART era 後 HIV 從致命病轉成 chronic disease;70+ 歲 PWH 比例顯著增「老化加速 + ART side effects + 慢性發炎」三軸內分泌問題

  2. HIV 病人 endocrine dysfunction 機轉四軸

    • HIV 本身:直接感染 / lymphocyte invasion of endocrine glands
    • Opportunistic infections(CMV、TB、histoplasmosis、cryptococcus、PCP)— 多 invade adrenal、testes、pituitary
    • 慢性發炎(即使 ART era 仍持續低度發炎)— 加速 atherosclerosis、bone loss、insulin resistance、frailty
    • ART medications + drug interactions:metabolic effects、bone toxicity、weight gain、lipid changes、QT、HPA suppression

46.1.2 Adrenal axis(2 點)

  1. Adrenal Insufficiency in HIV
    • Primary:CMV adrenalitis(pre-ART era 多)、mycobacterial、fungal、Kaposi sarcoma;ART era 已減少
    • Secondary
      • Glucocorticoid use 致 HPA 抑制(最常見)— 治療 PCP、IRIS、cancer 等
      • CNS infection / lymphoma invade hypothalamus / pituitary
      • Drug interactions:fluticasone、budesonide + ritonavir → systemic glucocorticoid 過量 → 後 HPA 抑制
    • 「Functional」glucocorticoid 抗性:cytokine + chronic stress → 部分 PWH 即使 cortisol 正常仍有 adrenal symptoms
    • 篩檢:morning cortisol → cosyntropin test(peak < 18 μg/dL = AI)
  2. HIV Cortisol Resistance / Cortisol Shunting
    • HIV-related cytokines(特別 IL-6、TNFα)→ glucocorticoid receptor 信號改變
    • 部分 PWH 「relative cortisol deficiency」即使 cortisol 在 normal 範圍
    • 個別化 hydrocortisone replacement 在 sick day rules

46.1.3 Gonadal axis(2 點)

  1. Male Gonadal Dysfunction in HIV
    • 30-50% PWH 男性 hypogonadism
    • Multifactorial
      • Chronic illness + 慢性發炎 → 中樞 hypogonadism
      • SHBG ↑ → free testosterone ↓
      • Weight loss + cachexia
      • Direct testicular involvement(CMV、TB、Mycobacterium、lymphoma)
      • Opioid use(chronic pain)
      • Depression + 老化
      • ART 部分(efavirenz、ketoconazole)影響
    • 評估:morning total testosterone × 2 + LH/FSH + SHBG(free testosterone calculate)+ prolactin
    • 治療:testosterone replacement individual;心血管 + prostate cancer 風險評估必
  2. Female Gonadal Dysfunction in HIV
    • Premature ovarian insufficiency(POI)+ menstrual abnormalities 風險增
    • 機轉:chronic illness + 慢性發炎 + body composition + ART
    • Cervical cancer 風險增(HPV + immunosuppression)
    • HRT 個別化(CV / VTE / cancer 風險平衡)
    • 妊娠:vertical transmission prevention(ART throughout pregnancy)+ HRT + 內分泌 surveillance

46.1.4 Bone metabolism(2 點)

  1. HIV Bone Loss
    • PWH bone density ↓ ~6% (femoral neck) vs HIV-negative
    • ART 起始前後 BMD 急 ↓ ~2-6% over 2 yr(特別 TDF; TAF 影響較小)
    • Osteoporosis prevalence in PWH:women 8-15%、men 5-10%
    • 機轉:直接 HIV、慢性發炎(IL-6、TNFα、RANKL)、ART(TDF > TAF)、低 vit D、androgen 不足、低 BMI、nutritional
    • DEXA 推薦:postmenopausal women + ≥ 50 yo men + 40+ with risks → q1-2 yr
    • Treatment:bisphosphonate(alendronate、zoledronate)+ denosumab;teriparatide / abaloparatide for severe;ART 起始時 zoledronate single dose 預防 trials 中
  2. Avascular Necrosis (AVN) of Bone in HIV
    • PWH AVN risk ~5-10× higher than general
    • 多 femoral head;其他:humeral、knee
    • 機轉:corticosteroid use、ART(PI 較高 risk)、ETOH、coagulation disorders
    • 早期診斷 MRI(X-ray 多 normal)
    • 治療:保守 → core decompression → 全髖置換

46.1.5 Metabolic(4 點)

  1. DM + Insulin Resistance in HIV
    • DM prevalence in PWH 12-15%(vs general ~9-10%)
    • 機轉:visceral adiposity + chronic inflammation + ART(PI、stavudine、didanosine 過去;INSTI 經由 weight gain)+ direct HIV effects
    • 篩檢:fasting glucose / HbA1c 每年;ART 起始時必
    • 治療:lifestyle + metformin first;SGLT2i / GLP1-RA 個別化(drug interaction with ART 注意)
  2. AIDS Wasting Syndrome + Lean Body Mass
    • Modern ART era 已罕見(< 5% 主動 wasting)
    • 過去:HIV → 慢性 catabolic state + cytokines + GH resistance + 食慾不足 → > 10% body weight 過去 1 yr
    • Treatment
      • Recombinant GH (somatropin, Serostim) — 2002 FDA approved;短期 lean mass + functional status 改善
      • Anabolic steroids(oxandrolone、testosterone)individual
      • Megestrol acetate(appetite stim 但增 fat)
      • Nutritional support + exercise
  3. Fat Mass + Distribution + Lipoatrophy / Lipohypertrophy
    • Lipodystrophy syndromes 從 d-drug era(stavudine、zidovudine)顯著減少 with modern ART
    • Lipoatrophy:peripheral fat loss(face、limbs、buttocks)— 多 d-drug 過去
    • Lipohypertrophy:visceral abdominal fat 增 + buffalo hump + 乳房增大
    • Tesamorelin (Egrifta) GHRH analogue:FDA approved for HIV-related lipodystrophy;2 mg SC qd → ↓ visceral fat ~15%;停藥後反彈
    • TAF + INSTI era weight gain:DAWNING、ADVANCE、NAMSAL → ~3-5 kg over 1-2 yr;女性 + 黑人 + 起始前 BMI 高 + 低 baseline T cell 顯著
    • GLP1-RA / Tirzepatide for ART weight gain:emerging studies;個別化 + drug interaction 注意
  4. HIV CV Disease + REPRIEVE trial 2023(最重要 paradigm shift):
    • PWH ASCVD 風險比 HIV-negative 1.5-2× even after risk factor adjustment → 慢性發炎 driver
    • REPRIEVE trial 2023 (NEJM Grinspoon):n=7,769 PWH age 40-75 + low-to-moderate ASCVD risk → Pitavastatin 4 mg vs placebo → MACE ↓ 35%(primary prevention!)
    • 改變 HIV 病人 statin paradigm:多 PWH 即使 LDL 正常也應 statin(特別 ≥ 40 歲)
    • Drug interaction:rosuvastatin + atorvastatin + pitavastatin 與 ART 相對 safe;simvastatin + lovastatin 與 ritonavir / cobicistat 嚴重 interaction(CYP3A4)→ 必避用
    • Anti-inflammatory CV strategies:colchicine(小 trials positive)、IL-1β inhibitor 試驗中

46.1.6 兒童 + Special(2 點)

  1. Growth and Puberty in Children with HIV
    • HIV-infected children growth velocity ↓(即使 ART well-controlled)
    • Delayed puberty + 短身材
    • GH axis dysfunction:低 IGF-1 + GH resistance(chronic inflammation)
    • Bone metabolism 不健全:低 BMD + delayed peak bone mass
    • HIV-exposed but uninfected children:subtle growth + neurodevelopment differences;in utero ART exposure 影響仍研究
  2. Electrolyte abnormalities
    • Hyponatremia 在 PWH 常見(30-40%)
    • SIADH(CNS infection、pneumonia、malignancy)+ adrenal insufficiency + drug-induced
    • Hyperkalemia:drug-induced(trimethoprim → 抑 ENaC)+ adrenal insufficiency
    • Hypocalcemia + Vit D deficiency 普遍;治療 + 補充
    • Hypomagnesemia:tenofovir、amphotericin、foscarnet
    • 「Pseudohyponatremia」:高 lipemia / paraproteinemia 影響

46.1.7 整合治療(2 點)

  1. Endocrine Surveillance in PWH(2022 IAS-USA + DHHS guideline)
ART 起始前:
  □ Fasting lipid + glucose + HbA1c
  □ Vitamin D + Calcium
  □ Renal + LFT
  □ DEXA if ≥ 50 yo postmenopausal women / ≥ 50 yo men / ≥ 40 with risk factors
  □ Testosterone if symptoms(男)
  □ TSH baseline

年度 follow-up:
  □ Fasting lipid + glucose + HbA1c
  □ Bone density q 1-2 yr
  □ Testosterone if hypogonadal
  □ TSH if symptoms
  □ Adrenal function if 抑制 / 症狀
  □ Cardiovascular risk re-assessment
  □ ART-related side effect monitoring(weight gain、lipid changes、bone loss)
  1. Treatment 整合 paradigm
1. Adrenal: 個別化 HC replacement;sick day rules;避 fluticasone + ritonavir interaction
2. Gonadal: testosterone replacement 個別化(CV + prostate 風險評估)
3. Bone: lifestyle + Ca/Vit D + DEXA q1-2y + bisphosphonate / denosumab;TDF → TAF 切換考慮
4. Metabolic: lifestyle + metformin / SGLT2i / GLP1-RA;INSTI weight gain individual mgmt
5. CV: **Statin(pitavastatin / rosuvastatin / atorvastatin) primary prevention from age 40+ per REPRIEVE**;BP control;smoking cessation
6. Lipodystrophy: tesamorelin for visceral fat(individual);過去 lipoatrophy 已減少
7. AIDS wasting: nutritional + exercise + GH(Serostim)individual
8. ART optimization: 切換 regimen 避免 drug interaction + bone-sparing + 體重 - neutral

46.2 📌 必背數字(速覽,詳細在最後總表)

主題 數字
全球 PWH 38.4 million
美國 PWH 1.2+ million
Male hypogonadism in PWH 30-50%
DM prevalence in PWH 12-15%
Bone density ↓ vs HIV-negative ~6% femoral neck
ART 起始 BMD ↓ 2-6% over 2 yr
Osteoporosis(women / men)in PWH 8-15% / 5-10%
AVN risk vs general 5-10×
INSTI weight gain over 1-2 yr ~3-5 kg
Tesamorelin visceral fat ↓ ~15%
REPRIEVE pitavastatin ↓ MACE 35%(primary prevention)
HIV ASCVD risk vs negative 1.5-2×
Hyponatremia in PWH 30-40%

46.3 📘 Detail(九個 deep sections,sub-section 對齊原書 H5)

原書(Williams 15e Ch 46 Grinspoon & Carr)依九個內分泌軸 narrative:① Adrenal Function → ② Gonadal Function(男+女)→ ③ Thyroid Function(euthyroid sick + IRIS Graves + 機會性感染)→ ④ Fluid Balance and Electrolytes → ⑤ Calcium Homeostasis and Bone Changes(含 Bone Loss / Pediatric / AVN)→ ⑥ The Growth Hormone/IGF-1 Axis(含兒童 Growth/Puberty)→ ⑦ Glucose Homeostasis and Pancreatic Function → ⑧ Body Composition Changes in PWH(含 AIDS Wasting / Lipodystrophy / Visceral Fat / Lipoatrophy / Modern ART Era 體重增加)→ ⑨ Lipids and CV Disease in PWH(含 Lipid Abnormalities / Atherosclerosis MI Stroke / HF SCD / Hyperlipidemia 治療 / Anti-inflammatory CV)。

本講義 sub-section 1:1 對齊原書 H5 + bold lead-in 邊界,方便對照原文索引。


46.3.1 Section 1 — Adrenal Function

46.3.1.1 1.1 Adrenal Insufficiency

46.3.1.1.1 1.1.1 Primary Adrenal Insufficiency

機轉以 pre-ART era 機會性感染為主: - CMV adrenalitis(最常見 opportunistic)— 多 destroying both glands - Mycobacterial(M. tuberculosis、MAC) - Fungal(histoplasmosis、cryptococcus) - Kaposi sarcoma(adrenal involvement 罕但有) - Lymphoma

ART era 顯著減少——多 PWH 在 well-controlled CD4 + viral suppression 下不易 develop primary AI。

46.3.1.1.2 1.1.2 Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency

ART era 主要機轉: - Glucocorticoid use 致 HPA 抑制:治療 PCP / IRIS / lymphoma / cancer 後逐減;高劑量 + 長期 → HPA 抑制 - Drug interactions(CYP3A4): * Inhaled / topical fluticasone + budesonide + ritonavir / cobicistat → CYP3A4 抑制 → 系統性 fluticasone 過量 → iatrogenic Cushing + 後續 HPA 抑制(典考點) * Beclomethasone 較 safer(不那麼 CYP3A4-dependent) - CNS infection / lymphoma invade hypothalamus / pituitary - Megestrol acetate(過去用 AIDS wasting 食慾刺激)有 glucocorticoid agonist activity → HPA 抑制

46.3.1.2 1.2 Glucocorticoid Excess: Adrenal Shunting and Cortisol Resistance

「Cortisol resistance」概念(HIV-specific 現象): - HIV-related cytokines(IL-6、TNFα)→ glucocorticoid receptor signaling 改變 - 部分 PWH 「relative cortisol deficiency」即使 cortisol 在 normal 範圍仍有 adrenal symptoms - 「Adrenal shunting」:增 19-nor-deoxycorticosterone(mineralocorticoid 異常)+ 部分 androgen ↑ - 多 functional findings;clinical significance 有限

46.3.1.3 1.3 Medication Effects

各 ART + adjunct 對 adrenal axis 影響整理(呼應 1.1.2 但聚焦藥物清單): - Fluticasone + ritonavir / cobicistat 危險組合:避用(switch 到 beclomethasone 或 ART switch) - Ketoconazole:抑 cortisol synthesis → 部分 AI;過去用 Cushing therapy - Megestrol acetate:glucocorticoid agonist activity - Etomidate:one-time use 即可抑 adrenal(critical illness 注意) - Opioids(chronic pain):HPA 抑制

46.3.1.4 1.4 Clinical Assessment

篩檢策略: - Morning cortisol(8 am):< 3 μg/dL = AI;> 18 = AI rule out - Cosyntropin (250 μg) test:peak < 18 μg/dL = AI(HIV adrenal insufficiency 標準切點) - Low-dose cosyntropin (1 μg) test:對 secondary AI 較敏感 - ACTH 測定:primary(> normal)vs secondary(low/normal)

治療: - Hydrocortisone 15-25 mg/day divided(晨多)+ Fludrocortisone 0.05-0.2 mg if primary - Sick day rules:double dose for fever / 感染;triple dose for surgery - Emergency injection kit(IM hydrocortisone 100 mg)+ medical bracelet


46.3.2 Section 2 — Gonadal Function

46.3.2.1 2.1 Male Gonadal Dysfunction

46.3.2.1.1 2.1.1 流行病學與機轉
  • 30-50% PWH 男性 hypogonadism(modern ART era 仍偏高)
  • 多軸 multifactorial
    • Chronic illness + 慢性發炎 → 中樞 hypogonadism(HPG axis 抑制)
    • SHBG ↑ in HIV → free testosterone ↓(即使 total testosterone normal,故 total T 在 PWH 易失準)
    • Weight loss + cachexia + low BMI
    • Direct testicular involvement(CMV、TB、Mycobacterium、lymphoma)— ART era 罕
    • Opioid use(chronic pain → 中樞 HPG 抑制)
    • Depression + 老化
    • ART medications
      • Efavirenz(中樞神經副作用 + 部分 hypogonadism)
      • Ketoconazole + ritonavir(part of legacy drugs)
46.3.2.1.2 2.1.2 Diagnosis
  • Symptoms + signs:低 libido、ED、fatigue、depressed mood、low muscle、gynecomastia
  • Morning total testosterone × 2 measurements(2 separate days due to diurnal variation)
  • SHBG + albumin + free testosterone calculate(HIV 因 SHBG ↑ 多致 total T 高估,需算 free T)
  • LH + FSH:primary(> normal)vs secondary(low/normal)
  • Prolactin + estradiol + ferritin(hemochromatosis)+ TSH:排除 secondary causes
46.3.2.1.3 2.1.3 Treatment
  • Testosterone replacement therapy (TRT)
    • Topical gel (Androgel、Testim) 50-100 mg/day
    • IM injections (testosterone enanthate / cypionate) 100-200 mg q 1-2 wk
    • Pellet implants (Testopel) 6-month
    • Patch + buccal alternative
  • Pre-treatment evaluation
    • PSA + DRE(prostate cancer screening;TRT 不增 risk per TRAVERSE 2023 但需 baseline)
    • Hematocrit(polycythemia 風險)
    • Lipid + LFT
    • CV risk assessment
  • Monitoring:testosterone level、Hct、PSA、symptoms q3-6 mo
  • Side effects:polycythemia、acne、prostate growth、breast tenderness、sleep apnea worsening

46.3.2.2 2.2 Female Gonadal Dysfunction

46.3.2.2.1 2.2.1 Premature Ovarian Insufficiency + Menstrual Abnormalities
  • POI 在 PWH 比 general 女性高
  • Menstrual abnormalities(amenorrhea、oligomenorrhea、anovulation)多
  • 機轉:chronic illness + 慢性發炎 + body composition + ART
  • 評估:FSH + LH + estradiol + AMH + AFC(個別化)
46.3.2.2.2 2.2.2 HRT Considerations
  • 個別化(CV、VTE、breast cancer 風險評估)
  • HIV 不是 HRT contraindication
  • Drug interactions:oral estrogen + ritonavir / efavirenz 影響 estrogen 濃度
  • Transdermal preferred(skip 第一通過效應,避開 CYP 互動)
46.3.2.2.3 2.2.3 HPV + Cervical Cancer
  • Cervical cancer 風險增 5-8 倍 in PWH(vs general 女性)
  • HPV vaccination 強烈推薦
  • Pap smear + HPV co-testing q 6-12 mo(vs 一般 q 3-5 yr)
  • 異常 → colposcopy
46.3.2.2.4 2.2.4 Pregnancy
  • ART throughout pregnancy(vertical transmission < 1%)
  • 內分泌 surveillance:thyroid + DM + adrenal
  • Postpartum:breast feeding policies vary by country

46.3.3 Section 3 — Thyroid Function

此 section 為 Phase 7 retrofit 補漏——原書獨立 H5 主題,過去講義版本誤併入「整合治療」段;今 1:1 對齊原書 narrative。

46.3.3.1 3.1 Untreated / Advanced HIV 的甲狀腺異常(Euthyroid Sick Pattern + 特殊變化)

  • Advanced HIV 多 abnormal TFT:多屬 nonthyroidal illness syndrome(euthyroid sick)伴隨疾病嚴重度
  • HIV-specific 變異(與一般 sick euthyroid 不同):
    • Reverse T3 (rT3) 不升反降(典 nonthyroidal illness 應升 rT3,但 HIV 進展病人多反向)
    • TBG (thyroid-binding globulin) ↑:與 CD4↓ 成相關
  • 典型 pattern in 進展 HIV:T3 ↓ + TBG ↑ + rT3 ↓
  • 臨床意義:解讀 PWH TFT 不能套用一般 sick euthyroid 規則;需 free T4 + TSH + TBG 一起判讀

46.3.3.2 3.2 ART 後 Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS) — 自體免疫甲狀腺病

  • Graves disease:ART 後 immune reconstitution 最常見甲狀腺表現
    • 女性 ~3%、男性 ~0.2% of treated PWH
    • 時程:median 29.5 個月(一 cohort)至 63 個月(另一 cohort)after ART initiation
    • 治療:radioactive iodine 已成功使用報告
    • IL-2 治療後也有報告
  • Autoimmune hypothyroidism(IRIS):較 Graves 罕;亦可 ART 後出現
  • Guideline 建議ART 起始時不需 routine TFT screening(無 cost-effectiveness 證據);改 clinical suspicion based screening

46.3.3.3 3.3 機會性感染與藥物對甲狀腺的影響

  • Pneumocystis thyroiditis:painful thyroiditis-like 表現;hyperthyroid → hypothyroid 序列;scan 攝取 ↓ + 觸痛
    • 多與 inhaled pentamidine(致 extrapulmonary Pneumocystis)相關
  • CMV / MAI / Cryptococcus / Kaposi sarcoma:autopsy 可見,但臨床甲狀腺病少
  • Aspergillus / Rhodococcus equi:thyroid abscess 報告
  • 下視丘-垂體機會性感染(toxoplasmosis、CMV)→ secondary hypothyroidism
  • 藥物影響
    • Rifampin → 加速 T4 hepatic clearance
    • Interferon → 增 autoimmune hypothyroidism

46.3.3.4 3.4 ART-treated 良好控制 PWH 的甲狀腺現況

  • Virologic control 良好的 PWH:overt 甲狀腺病 prevalence 與一般族群相當(多研究結論一致)
  • Subclinical hypothyroidism:有 study 顯示稍增、亦有 study 顯示無關,目前尚無共識
  • Routine adult TFT screening 不建議(DHHS / IAS-USA 立場);以症狀導向

46.3.3.5 3.5 Pediatric PWH 的甲狀腺異常

  • TSH ↑ in young HIV-infected children(mean age 1.5 yr)with failure to thrive:T4 normal but TRH testing 顯示 exaggerated TSH response;補甲狀腺素 → growth velocity 改善
  • Anti-thyroglobulin antibodies ↑ in 34% symptomatic HIV children;TSH ↑ in 28%(特別 severe immunosuppression)
  • Perinatally infected children:total T3 / T4 / free T4 ↓ + rT3 / TBG / TSH ↑ + 抗體陰性 → euthyroid sick pattern
  • 臨床建議:HIV children with failure to thrive 應 screen 真正 hypothyroidism;多數 TFT 異常反映 nonthyroidal illness 與免疫低下嚴重度

46.3.4 Section 4 — Fluid Balance and Electrolytes

對齊原書 H5 「Fluid Balance and Electrolytes」+ bold lead-in(Sodium / Potassium);補 calcium / magnesium / pseudohyponatremia 完整 panel。

46.3.4.1 4.1 Hyponatremia(PWH 最常見 electrolyte 異常)

  • 30-40% PWH 有 hyponatremia(advanced AIDS 可達 50%)
  • 機轉:
    • SIADH(最常見):CNS infection、pneumonia、malignancy、ART(efavirenz)
    • Adrenal insufficiency(必排除)
    • Drug-induced(thiazide、SSRI)
    • Volume depletion(diarrhea、wasting)
  • 評估:urine osmolality + urine Na + serum cortisol + TSH(鑑別 SIADH vs AI vs hypovolemic)

46.3.4.2 4.2 Hyperkalemia

  • Trimethoprim → ENaC 抑制 → K↑(潛伏期數天,PCP prophylaxis / treatment 必查)
  • Adrenal insufficiency(mineralocorticoid ↓)
  • CKD(HIV-associated nephropathy / TDF nephrotoxicity)
  • Drug-induced(ACEi/ARB、heparin、spironolactone)

46.3.4.3 4.3 Hypocalcemia + Vitamin D Deficiency

  • Vit D deficiency 60-70% in PWH(多 < 30 ng/mL)
  • 機轉:少日曬 + 慢性發炎 + ART(efavirenz、TDF)+ obesity + 黑人族群
  • 治療:Vit D3 1000-2000 IU/day + Ca 1000 mg/day baseline;高劑量 ergocalciferol if 嚴重 deficiency

46.3.4.4 4.4 Hypomagnesemia

  • Tenofovir、amphotericin B、foscarnet 致 renal Mg wasting
  • 慢性腹瀉亦致

46.3.4.5 4.5 Pseudohyponatremia

  • 高 lipemia / paraproteinemia → flame photometry artifact;direct ion-selective electrode (ISE) 仍正常
  • HIV PI era hypertriglyceridemia 嚴重時典型陷阱

46.3.5 Section 5 — Calcium Homeostasis and Bone Changes

對齊原書 H5「Calcium Homeostasis and Bone Changes」+ bold lead-ins(Bone Loss / Pediatric Bone / AVN)。Pediatric Growth/Puberty 拉到 Section 6(GH/IGF-1 axis)對齊原書順序。

46.3.5.1 5.1 Bone Loss: Prevalence + Etiologic Factors + Treatment Strategies

46.3.5.1.1 5.1.1 流行病學
  • PWH bone density ↓ ~6% (femoral neck) vs HIV-negative
  • Osteoporosis prevalence:women 8-15%、men 5-10%
  • Fracture rate ↑ ~50% vs general population
46.3.5.1.3 5.1.3 機轉
  • Direct HIV effects:osteoclastogenesis 促進
  • Chronic inflammation:IL-6、TNFα、RANKL ↑
  • ART specific(前述 5.1.2)
  • Vitamin D deficiency(高 prevalence in PWH,呼應 Section 4)
  • Low BMI + nutritional + 老化
  • Androgen / estrogen 不足(呼應 Section 2)
46.3.5.1.4 5.1.4 Diagnosis

DEXA 推薦(2022 IAS-USA + DHHS guideline): - Postmenopausal women + ≥ 50 yo men + ≥ 40 with risk factors → q 1-2 yr - Trabecular Bone Score (TBS) 補充 - FRAX score with HIV adjustment

46.3.5.1.5 5.1.5 Treatment
  • Lifestyle:weight-bearing exercise + 戒菸 + 限酒
  • Calcium 1000-1200 mg + Vitamin D 800-2000 IU/day(保 25(OH)D > 30 ng/mL)
  • Bisphosphonate:alendronate 70 mg PO q wk、zoledronate 5 mg IV q yr
  • Denosumab 60 mg SC q 6 mo(CKD 適合)
  • Teriparatide / Abaloparatide for severe / multiple fractures
  • Romosozumab for high fracture risk + non-CV high risk
  • ART optimization:TDF → TAF switch when bone concern
46.3.5.1.6 5.1.6 Pre-ART zoledronate 預防
  • 部分 trials 顯示 ART 起始時 zoledronate single dose → ↓ BMD loss
  • 仍實驗 / 個別化(尚未 routine)

46.3.5.2 5.2 Bone Metabolism in Children with HIV

  • Pediatric PWH BMD ↓(即使 ART well-controlled)
  • Delayed peak bone mass
  • 機轉:類成人 + delayed puberty + nutritional + chronic inflammation
  • 治療:個別化 + Ca/Vit D + 必要時 bisphosphonate(兒童 selected case)

46.3.5.3 5.3 Avascular Necrosis (AVN) of Bone

46.3.5.3.1 5.3.1 流行病學與機轉
  • PWH AVN risk 5-10× general population
  • 多 femoral head;其他:humeral、knee、ankle
  • 機轉:
    • Corticosteroid use(多)
    • ART (PI 較高 risk historically)
    • ETOH
    • Coagulation disorders
    • Chronic inflammation
46.3.5.3.2 5.3.2 Diagnosis
  • Early MRI is gold standard(X-ray 多 normal early)
  • Symptoms:髖關節 + 鼠蹊部痛(早期 weight-bearing 加重)
  • Ficat staging 0-IV
46.3.5.3.3 5.3.3 Treatment
  • Stage I-II:保守 + 物理治療 + 限負荷
  • Stage III:core decompression + 必要 osteotomy
  • Stage IV (collapse):全髖置換
  • Bisphosphonate:可能延緩進展(爭議)

46.3.6 Section 6 — The Growth Hormone / IGF-1 Axis(含兒童 Growth + Puberty)

此 section 為 Phase 7 retrofit 補漏——原書獨立 H5「The Growth Hormone/Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 Axis」+ bold lead-in「Growth and Puberty in Children With HIV」緊接其後;過去講義誤併入 Bone block 與 1-page summary 兒童條目。今對齊原書順序獨立成軸。

46.3.6.1 6.1 成人 PWH 的 GH/IGF-1 Axis 異常(雙向)

PWH 的 GH/IGF-1 異常依 body composition 呈雙向 pattern:

46.3.6.1.1 6.1.1 AIDS Wasting + 顯著體重流失組
  • GH ↑ + IGF-1 ↓ → 典型 GH resistance pattern(如 malnutrition)
  • 與 catabolic state、cytokines、營養不良一致
46.3.6.1.2 6.1.2 VAT accumulation / lipohypertrophy 組
  • Relative GH deficiency:mean overnight GH ↓ + GH pulse amplitude ↓ vs 對照
  • Multifactorial 機轉(呼應 visceral fat):
    • VAT 增 → 游離脂肪酸 (FFA) ↑ → GH 抑制
    • Somatostatin tone ↑
    • Ghrelin ↓
  • Increased VAT 是 relative GH deficiency 最強 predictor
  • 臨床意義:解釋為何 Tesamorelin(GHRH analogue)對 visceral fat 有效(呼應 Section 8.4 治療)

46.3.6.2 6.2 Growth and Puberty in Children with HIV

46.3.6.2.1 6.2.1 Stunting + 短身材流行病學
  • HIV-infected children short stature / stunting prevalence:
    • ART-naive 資源有限地區:up to 50% of children + adolescents
    • ART-treated:6%(高資源)至 39%(低資源)
  • Stunting 定義(WHO):length-for-age Z-score < -2,伴隨 nutrition / infection 不利
46.3.6.2.2 6.2.2 In Utero / 周產期 HIV 暴露的影響
  • HIV-from-mother + HIV-exposed but uninfected (HEU):出生 length-for-age + weight-for-length 較對照低
  • LBW (low birth weight) prevalence ↑ in infants with HIV
  • 頭部生長:HIV infants + young children 頭圍 ↓ vs 對照
  • HEU 的長期影響:高度差距持續至少 5 歲
46.3.6.2.3 6.2.3 ART 對 Growth 的「Catch-up」效應
  • ART 起始 → 部分 catch-up growth + height-for-age Z-score 改善
  • 限制:早期統計不足者即使早 ART 仍無法完全 reverse
  • Cohort 數據:≤11 歲起 ART 的 children 中,僅 baseline Z-score ≥ -1 者能達 WHO 參考範圍
  • 正向 predictors:早 ART 起始 + 高 CD4+ + 低 viral load + 女性 + nutritional supplementation
46.3.6.2.4 6.2.4 Pubertal Delay
  • Girls 比 HEU 晚 6-8 個月進入 puberty(gonadarche + adrenarche)
  • Boys 比 HEU 晚 10-11 個月
  • Puberty 完成 PWH children 比 HEU 晚 ~6 個月
  • 低 CD4+ + 高 viral load + 晚 ART → predict 較晚 pubertal timing + 較晚 peak height velocity
46.3.6.2.5 6.2.5 機轉與 GH/IGF-1 Axis
  • Literature 不支持 children with HIV 有 GH deficiency 增加
  • Wasting / undernutrition children:GH resistance + 循環 / bioavailable IGF-1 ↓
  • HEU infants:IGF-1 ↓ 與 CRP ↑ + CMV viral load ↑ 正相關 → 發炎 + immune activation 獨立於 HIV 本身擾亂 GH axis
  • rhGH replacement:個別化(部分 case 改善),不 routine

46.3.7 Section 7 — Glucose Homeostasis and Pancreatic Function

46.3.7.1 7.1 Epidemiology of Diabetes Mellitus and Insulin Resistance in HIV

  • DM prevalence in PWH ~12-15%(vs general ~9-10%)
  • Insulin resistance ~30-40% in PWH
  • 老化加速 + chronic inflammation 致 T2D-like 病程
46.3.7.1.1 7.1.1 機轉(多軸)
  • Direct HIV effects on β-cell + insulin signaling
  • Chronic inflammation (cytokines) → insulin resistance
  • Visceral adiposity + ectopic fat in lipohypertrophy(呼應 Section 8)
  • ART medications
    • PI (lopinavir/ritonavir、indinavir、atazanavir) — historical 顯著 IR
    • NRTI (stavudine、didanosine) — 過去
    • INSTI (dolutegravir 等) — 經由 weight gain 間接(呼應 8.5)
    • Tenofovir Alafenamide (TAF) — 較 weight gain
  • Concomitant:HCV co-infection、ETOH
46.3.7.1.2 7.1.2 Diagnosis
  • Fasting glucose / HbA1c 每年(ART 起始時 + 高 risk q 6 mo)
  • OGTT in unclear cases
  • HbA1c caveat in PWH:多 underestimate 真實血糖(reduced RBC 半衰期、慢性發炎、ART 干擾紅血球)→ fasting glucose / OGTT 必須補充(典考點)
46.3.7.1.3 7.1.3 Treatment
  • Lifestyle first:Mediterranean、weight management、exercise
  • Metformin first-line(drug interaction 少 + safe)
  • SGLT2i / GLP1-RA
    • 個別化(drug interaction with PI / cobicistat 部分)
    • GLP1-RA 也對 ART weight gain 有幫助(emerging evidence;呼應 8.5)
  • Insulin if 必要
  • ART regimen 切換:避高 IR ART(個別化)

46.3.8 Section 8 — Body Composition Changes in People With HIV

對齊原書 H5「Body Composition Changes in People With HIV」+ 4 個 italic-bold lead-ins(Treatment of AIDS Wasting / Treatments for Visceral Fat Accumulation / Treatment of Lipoatrophy / Weight Gain in the Modern ART Era)。

46.3.8.1 8.1 The AIDS Wasting Syndrome and Loss of Lean Body Mass

46.3.8.1.1 8.1.1 過去定義 + 流行
  • AIDS wasting:> 10% body weight loss over 1 yr + chronic 腹瀉 / 發燒 / 食慾下降
  • Modern ART era 已罕見(< 5% PWH)
  • 過去 mortality 重要 risk factor
46.3.8.1.2 8.1.2 機轉
  • HIV catabolic state
  • Cytokine-mediated(TNFα、IL-6)muscle wasting
  • GH resistance(IGF-1 ↓ even GH 正常;呼應 Section 6.1.1)
  • 食慾不足 + malabsorption
  • Hypogonadism + depression(呼應 Section 2)
46.3.8.1.3 8.1.3 Treatment of AIDS Wasting
  • Nutritional support + 高蛋白 + ω-3
  • Exercise + resistance training
  • Recombinant GH (somatropin, Serostim) — 2002 FDA approved;6 mg SC qd × 12 wk → 短期 lean mass + functional status 改善;副作用:joint pain、insulin resistance
  • Anabolic steroids:oxandrolone 20 mg/day + testosterone replacement individual
  • Megestrol acetate(食慾刺激)— 增 fat 多於 lean;HPA 抑制副作用
  • Cannabinoids(dronabinol)— 食慾 + 體重稍增

46.3.8.2 8.2 Lipodystrophy Syndromes(Lipoatrophy + Lipohypertrophy 概念)

過去 d-drug era(stavudine、zidovudine、didanosine)出現嚴重 lipodystrophy;modern ART era 顯著減少但仍見:

Lipoatrophy(peripheral fat loss): - Face、limbs、buttocks subcutaneous fat 流失 - 多 d-drug 過去;TDF 較少;TAF + INSTI 不致

Lipohypertrophy(central fat 增加): - Visceral abdominal fat 增 + buffalo hump(dorsocervical fat pad)+ 乳房增大 - 多 PI era;INSTI era 不同 mechanism

46.3.8.3 8.3 Treatments for Visceral Fat Accumulation

  • Tesamorelin (Egrifta) 2 mg SC qd:GHRH analogue
    • FDA approved for HIV-related lipodystrophy(visceral fat 過度)
    • ↓ visceral fat ~15% over 26 wk(Week 26 trial)
    • Week 52 long-term sustained
    • 停藥 → 反彈
    • 副作用:注射部位反應、joint pain、glucose 微升
  • Lifestyle + Mediterranean + exercise
  • Metformin for IR-associated central obesity
  • Bariatric surgery in selected cases (BMI ≥ 35-40)

46.3.8.4 8.4 Treatment of Lipoatrophy

  • Switch to non-d-drugs first(多 reverse 部分但需數年)
  • Polylactic acid (Sculptra) facial filler injections
  • Calcium hydroxylapatite filler
  • Autologous fat transfer

46.3.8.5 8.5 Weight Gain in the Modern ART Era(INSTI + TAF)

「INSTI / TAF era weight gain」是 2020s 新關注議題:

46.3.8.5.1 8.5.1 主要 trials
  • DAWNING trial (dolutegravir vs efavirenz):DTG ↑ ~3 kg 1 yr
  • ADVANCE trial:dolutegravir + TAF 高體重增加
  • NAMSAL trial:DTG ↑ ~5 kg over 1-2 yr
  • 女性 + 黑人 + baseline BMI 高 + low CD4 起始 weight gain 最顯著
46.3.8.5.2 8.5.2 機轉(不確定)
  • 「Return to health」效應(之前 catabolic 解除)
  • 直接 INSTI on adipocyte / hypothalamus(emerging data)
  • TAF metabolite effects vs TDF
46.3.8.5.3 8.5.3 Management
  • ART 起始前 pre-counseling + lifestyle preventive
  • GLP1-RA / Tirzepatide for ART weight gain:emerging studies(呼應 7.1.3)
  • ART regimen switch(個別化)— 但 viral suppression > weight gain priority
  • DEXA + body composition monitoring

46.3.9 Section 9 — Lipids and Cardiovascular Disease in People With HIV

46.3.9.1 9.1 流行病學(CV Disease 整體)

  • PWH ASCVD risk 1.5-2× HIV-negative(even after risk factor adjustment)
  • 慢性發炎 driver 比 traditional risk factors 更為核心
  • MI rate ↑ in PWH
  • Stroke + HF + sudden death rate ↑
  • HFpEF + diastolic dysfunction 高 prevalence

46.3.9.2 9.2 Lipid Abnormalities in HIV

46.3.9.2.1 9.2.1 ART era 演化
  • PI era:嚴重 hyperTG + 低 HDL + atherogenic dyslipidemia
  • NNRTI (efavirenz):lipid 提升但中等
  • INSTI:lipid 改變較少
  • TAF:lipid 比 TDF 略升(TDF 反而 LDL ↓ effect,故 TDF→TAF switch 後 LDL 多上升)
46.3.9.2.2 9.2.2 鑑別 secondary causes(呼應 Ch 41)

PWH 高 prevalence: - HCV co-infection → severe lipid abnormalities - Hypothyroid(呼應 Section 3) - Renal disease - Alcohol - Diet + lifestyle

46.3.9.3 9.3 Atherosclerosis, Myocardial Infarction, and Stroke

46.3.9.3.1 9.3.1 機轉
  • 慢性發炎:IL-6、CRP、IL-1β、TNFα → endothelial dysfunction + foam cell + plaque instability
  • Coronary plaque imaging(CCTA)顯示 PWH non-calcified、high-risk plaques 多
  • Microbial translocation + immune activation 持續(即使 ART 良好)
46.3.9.3.2 9.3.2 Risk stratification
  • Pooled Cohort Equation underestimates in PWH(必背 caveat)
  • HIV-specific risk calculator(Friis-Møller D:A:D)
  • CCTA / coronary calcium scoring 補充

46.3.9.4 9.4 Heart Failure and Sudden Death

  • HFpEF + HFrEF rate ↑
  • Cardiomyopathy can be HIV direct + opportunistic + ART
  • Sudden cardiac death rate ↑(QT 延長 + drug interactions)
  • ART-related QT:efavirenz、saquinavir、protease inhibitors + 抗組胺、antifungal、macrolide

46.3.9.5 9.5 Treatment of Hyperlipidemia Among PWH(核心 paradigm

46.3.9.5.1 9.5.1 REPRIEVE trial 2023 — paradigm-changing

REPRIEVE (Randomized Trial to Prevent Vascular Events in HIV) 2023(NEJM Grinspoon): - n=7,769 PWH age 40-75 + low-to-moderate ASCVD risk + ART well-controlled - Pitavastatin 4 mg PO qd vs placebo - MACE ↓ 35%(HR 0.65)over median 5.1 yr follow-up - Trial 提早終止 due to efficacy

意義: - Primary prevention!(低-中度 risk PWH 即可受益,不需高 LDL) - 改變 HIV 病人 statin paradigm:多 PWH 即使 LDL 不高也應 statin(特別 ≥ 40 歲) - ASCVD 預防 paradigm 在 PWH 已不只是 LDL 而是 anti-inflammatory + plaque stabilization

46.3.9.5.2 9.5.2 Statin choice in PWH(drug interaction)
Statin ART 互動 推薦
Pitavastatin Minimal CYP REPRIEVE 標準
Rosuvastatin OATP-mediated; 注意 ritonavir/cobicistat Safe with dose adjustment
Atorvastatin CYP3A4; 注意 ritonavir/cobicistat Safe with dose adjustment
Pravastatin Minimal CYP Safe but 較弱
Simvastatin CYP3A4 重度依賴 絕對禁忌 with ritonavir/cobicistat
Lovastatin CYP3A4 重度依賴 絕對禁忌 with ritonavir/cobicistat
Fluvastatin CYP2C9 Safe but 較弱
46.3.9.5.3 9.5.3 其他治療
  • Ezetimibe:safe + 多 ART neutral;add to statin if LDL 不達標
  • PCSK9 inhibitors:safe + 強 LDL 下降;用於 high-risk PWH refractory
  • Inclisiran:FDA approved;HIV 病人證據累積
  • Bempedoic acid:safe; statin-intolerant
  • Icosapent ethyl 4 g/day for high TG + ASCVD(per REDUCE-IT 對應;HIV 數據累積中)

46.3.9.6 9.6 Anti-inflammatory Strategies for Cardiovascular Disease in HIV

  • Statin’s pleiotropic effect beyond LDL(REPRIEVE 部分歸因)
  • Colchicine 0.5 mg PO qd:LoDoCo2 + COLCOT positive;HIV-specific trials 進行中
  • IL-1β inhibitor (canakinumab) for residual inflammation:CANTOS 啟示;HIV-specific trial 進行中
  • Methotrexate:CIRT trial negative
  • Lifestyle + 戒菸 + BP:foundational

46.3.10 Section 10 — ART era 整合 Treatment Strategy + Future Directions

此 section 為跨章節 synthesis,不對應原書 H5;retain 為臨床決策整合骨架(Drug interactions / Multidisciplinary care / Future Directions),方便台灣 fellow 整合考點。

46.3.10.1 10.1 ART era 整合 Treatment Strategy

1. Endocrine surveillance(前述 1-page summary 第 15 點 + 呼應各 section)

2. ART 選擇 individualized: - 避骨毒性 → 用 TAF over TDF(呼應 5.1.2) - 避體重增加 → 個別化(INSTI weight gain trade-off;呼應 8.5) - 避高 TG → 避 PI;用 INSTI / NNRTI(呼應 9.2)

3. Drug interactions 關鍵原則: - Ritonavir / cobicistat 是 CYP3A4 強 inhibitor → 避用:simvastatin / lovastatin(9.5.2)、fluticasone / budesonide(1.1.2)、salmeterol、quetiapine、midazolam、warfarin、ergot - Efavirenz 是 CYP3A4 inducer → 對 OC、warfarin、anticonvulsants 影響 - Use drug interaction database(Liverpool HIV Drug Interactions、AIDSinfo)

4. Multidisciplinary care(台灣 context 落地): - 感染科 (HIV specialist) + 內分泌科 + 心臟科 + 營養師 + 精神科 + 社工 - 台灣健保 ART 全給付;疾管署 HIV 統計顯示近年存活率顯著提升(呼應「老化內分泌 sequelae」框架) - 跨科共照 referral pathway:內分泌科主動接 HIV 病人 DEXA / lipid / CV / DM / hypogonadism workup

46.3.10.2 10.2 Future Directions

  • Long-acting injectable ART:Cabenuva (cabotegravir + rilpivirine IM monthly)、Lenacapavir → simplified adherence;對 metabolic 影響資料仍累積中
  • Functional cure / latency reversal trials
  • Anti-inflammatory adjuncts:colchicine、IL-1β inhibitor、methotrexate(HIV-specific trials 進行中)
  • AI-assisted comorbidity prediction + personalized care
  • REPRIEVE 2 trial:lower-risk + younger PWH
  • Bone health protocols during ART start(pre-ART zoledronate)

46.4 🎯 Self-test 25 MCQ

範圍涵蓋 6 sections,臨床情境為主;每題完整詳解。

46.4.1 Q1(Adrenal Insufficiency in HIV)

45 歲男 PWH 服 ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor + 慢性 sinusitis 用 fluticasone nasal spray 3 月 → fatigue、hypotension、皮膚 thinning + Cushingoid features。下列最可能機轉

A. Direct fluticasone 系統性吸收正常
B. Ritonavir 抑 CYP3A4 → fluticasone 系統性 levels 顯升 → iatrogenic Cushing + 後 HPA 抑制
C. Adrenal 直接感染
D. Vitamin D 缺乏
E. CNS infection

答案:B

Ritonavir / cobicistat 是 CYP3A4 strong inhibitor → fluticasone(CYP3A4-dependent metabolism)系統性吸收 ↑ 顯著 → iatrogenic Cushing + adrenal suppression。Beclomethasone 較 safer(不那麼 CYP3A4-dependent)。Switch ART 或 switch corticosteroid 必要。


46.4.2 Q2(Cosyntropin test)

55 歲 PWH morning cortisol 8 μg/dL,cosyntropin 250 μg → 30 min cortisol 14 μg/dL。下列最合適 interpretation

A. Normal adrenal
B. Adrenal Insufficiency(peak < 18 μg/dL = AI)
C. Cushing
D. SIADH
E. Hyperaldosteronism

答案:B

Cosyntropin (250 μg) test peak cortisol < 18 μg/dL = AI;secondary causes(HPA 抑制 from ART/steroid)or primary(CMV、TB、fungal)需鑑別。ACTH measurement primary(> normal)vs secondary(low/normal)。


46.4.3 Q3(Male hypogonadism in HIV)

50 歲 PWH morning total testosterone 250 ng/dL(normal 300-1000)+ SHBG 80(high)+ LH 4 mIU/mL(low-normal)。下列最合適 next

A. 立即 testosterone replacement
B. Free testosterone 計算 + 確認 SHBG 影響 + LH/FSH 解讀為 secondary hypogonadism
C. Prolactin 測定即可
D. 不需治療
E. 直接 IM testosterone

答案:B

PWH 男性 SHBG ↑ 多致 total testosterone 失準 → calculated free testosterone 是更精準 marker。LH 在 normal range with low T = secondary hypogonadism(中樞 HPG 抑制)。Multifactorial:chronic illness、SHBG、weight、opioids、depression。Replacement 個別化 + PSA + Hct + CV risk evaluation。


46.4.4 Q4(HIV bone loss + ART)

50 歲 PWH ART 起始 12 mo 後 DEXA femoral neck T-score -2.6(前 -1.8)。下列最合適

A. 觀察
B. TDF → TAF switch + Ca/Vit D + 考慮 bisphosphonate(zoledronate IV q yr 或 alendronate)
C. Stop ART
D. PTH 替代
E. Calcitonin

答案:B

ART 起始 BMD ↓ 2-6% over 2 yr,特別 TDF。TAF 影響較小 → switch 可考慮。Osteoporosis (T < -2.5) + ART era → bisphosphonate(alendronate 70 mg PO q wk 或 zoledronate 5 mg IV q yr);denosumab alternative;teriparatide / abaloparatide / romosozumab for severe。Vitamin D + calcium baseline.


46.4.5 Q5(AVN)

38 歲 PWH 髖關節急性痛 + 跑步加重 + X-ray 正常 + 過去長期 corticosteroid use for IRIS。下列最敏感 imaging

A. CT
B. MRI
C. Plain radiograph (再做)
D. PET
E. Bone scan

答案:B

AVN early stages → MRI is gold standard(X-ray 多 normal early);T1 + STIR sequences 顯示 marrow edema + double-line sign。Ficat staging 0-IV。PWH AVN risk 5-10× general(多 corticosteroid + ART + ETOH)。Treatment:保守 → core decompression → 全髖置換。


46.4.6 Q6(INSTI weight gain)

40 歲女性 PWH ART switch from efavirenz/TDF/FTC to dolutegravir/TAF/FTC,1 yr 後體重 ↑ 6 kg。下列最可能 mechanism

A. 直接食慾刺激
B. INSTI weight gain effect + TAF 效應;女性 + black ethnicity 特別顯著
C. Dolutegravir 直接 lipogenesis
D. Worsening DM
E. Hypothyroidism

答案:B

INSTI / TAF era weight gain 是 2020s 新關注;DAWNING、ADVANCE、NAMSAL trials 顯示 ~3-5 kg over 1-2 yr;女性 + 黑人 + 起始 BMI 高 + low CD4 起始最顯著。機轉不確定(return-to-health + 直接 INSTI on adipocyte + TAF metabolite)。Management:lifestyle + GLP1-RA / tirzepatide emerging + ART switch individual。


46.4.7 Q7(Lipodystrophy treatment)

45 歲 PWH lipohypertrophy 嚴重 abdominal visceral fat + 食慾正常 + insulin resistance。下列最特異 FDA-approved 治療

A. Liposuction
B. Tesamorelin 2 mg SC qd(GHRH analogue, Egrifta)
C. GH high dose
D. Weight loss surgery
E. Metformin only

答案:B

Tesamorelin (Egrifta) FDA approved for HIV-related visceral lipohypertrophy;2 mg SC qd → ↓ visceral fat ~15% over 26 wk;停藥反彈。Lifestyle + Metformin adjuncts。Liposuction 對 visceral fat 不適合(subcutaneous 才有用)。Bariatric surgery in BMI ≥ 35-40 selected cases。


46.4.8 Q8(REPRIEVE trial paradigm)

REPRIEVE trial 2023 主要 take-home?

A. Pitavastatin 對 PWH 無效
B. Pitavastatin 4 mg in PWH age 40-75 + low-to-moderate ASCVD risk → MACE ↓ 35%(primary prevention);改變 HIV 病人 statin paradigm
C. 只 high-risk PWH 受益
D. Statin 在 PWH 增 risk
E. ART 取代 statin

答案:B

REPRIEVE 2023 (NEJM Grinspoon, n=7,769) — pitavastatin 4 mg in PWH age 40-75 + low-to-moderate ASCVD risk → MACE ↓ 35%, trial 提早終止 due to efficacy。Primary prevention 顯著效果 → 多 PWH 即使 LDL 不高也應 statin(特別 ≥ 40 歲)。HIV ASCVD 預防 paradigm 已不只 LDL 而是 anti-inflammatory + plaque stabilization。


46.4.9 Q9(Statin choice + ART)

PWH 服 ritonavir-boosted darunavir。下列 statin 絕對禁忌

A. Atorvastatin
B. Rosuvastatin
C. Simvastatin
D. Pitavastatin
E. Pravastatin

答案:C

Simvastatin + Lovastatin CYP3A4 重度依賴 → ritonavir / cobicistat 強 inhibitor → 系統性 levels 大增 → severe rhabdomyolysis 風險 → 絕對禁忌Pitavastatin minimal CYP → REPRIEVE 標準。Atorvastatin / rosuvastatin safe with dose adjustment(CYP3A4 + OATP)。Pravastatin / fluvastatin 不依賴 CYP3A4 → safe。


46.4.10 Q10(DM in PWH)

PWH HbA1c 7.0%(多年)但 fasting glucose 持續 145 mg/dL。下列最合適

A. HbA1c 已達標 → 不變
B. HbA1c 在 PWH 多 underestimate(reduced RBC 半衰期 + 慢性發炎)→ 需 fasting glucose / OGTT 補充
C. 換 insulin only
D. SGLT2i first-line
E. 不需 DM 治療

答案:B

HbA1c 在 PWH 多 underestimate true glycemia(reduced RBC 半衰期 + chronic inflammation + ART 影響)→ fasting glucose / OGTT 補充必要。Treatment:lifestyle + metformin first-line(drug interaction 少 + safe)+ SGLT2i / GLP1-RA individual。


46.4.11 Q11(AIDS wasting in modern era)

下列關於 AIDS wasting 何者正確

A. Modern ART era 仍很常見
B. Modern ART era 已罕見 (< 5%);過去 anabolic adjuncts (testosterone、GH) 多歷史
C. 必由 CMV adrenalitis 致
D. 不可治療
E. Megestrol 是 first-line

答案:B

Modern ART era 已罕見 AIDS wasting (< 5%);過去主動 wasting 是 mortality risk factor。Treatment(個別化 in selected cases):nutritional + exercise + recombinant GH (somatropin, Serostim) 6 mg SC qd × 12 wk for short-term lean mass + functional improvement;anabolic steroids individual。Megestrol acetate 增 fat 多於 lean + HPA 抑制。


46.4.12 Q12(HIV cervical cancer screening)

30 歲 HIV-infected female 病人 cervical cancer screening 頻率?

A. Every 3-5 yr like general
B. Pap + HPV co-testing q 6-12 mo(vs 一般 q 3-5 yr)
C. Not needed
D. Q 5 yr
E. Only if symptomatic

答案:B

PWH female cervical cancer risk 增 5-8 倍(HPV + immunosuppression)。Pap smear + HPV co-testing q 6-12 mo(vs 一般 q 3-5 yr);異常 → colposcopy + biopsy。HPV vaccination 強烈推薦。


46.4.13 Q13(HIV CV disease 機轉)

PWH ASCVD risk 比 HIV-negative 增加,主要不可改變的 driver

A. LDL
B. BP
C. 慢性發炎 (chronic inflammation, immune activation)
D. Glucose
E. Smoking

答案:C

PWH ASCVD risk 1.5-2× HIV-negative even after risk factor adjustment → 慢性發炎是核心 driver。即使 ART well-controlled 仍 residual immune activation + microbial translocation。Anti-inflammatory CV strategies(statin pleiotropic + colchicine + IL-1β)為新方向。REPRIEVE statin 部分 attribution 在 anti-inflammatory effect。


46.4.14 Q14(Hyponatremia in PWH)

PWH 30-40% 有 hyponatremia。下列最常見 mechanism

A. Heart failure
B. SIADH(CNS infection、pneumonia、malignancy、efavirenz)
C. Adrenal insufficiency only
D. Direct HIV
E. Kidney failure

答案:B

PWH hyponatremia 30-40%(最常見 electrolyte 異常);SIADH 主因(CNS infection、pneumonia、malignancy、efavirenz);adrenal insufficiency + drug-induced(thiazide、SSRI)+ volume depletion 也常。Pseudohyponatremia(高 lipemia / paraproteinemia)需區分(direct ISE 仍正常)。


46.4.15 Q15(Vitamin D deficiency in PWH)

PWH 60-70% Vit D deficiency。下列最合適 baseline replacement

A. 不需
B. Vitamin D3 1000-2000 IU/day baseline + Ca 1000 mg;目標 25(OH)D > 30 ng/mL
C. 50,000 IU q wk forever
D. Active calcitriol only
E. UV light only

答案:B

PWH Vit D deficiency 普遍(60-70%;機轉:少日曬 + 慢性發炎 + ART + obesity + skin pigmentation)。Baseline replacement Vit D3 1000-2000 IU/day + Ca 1000 mg;目標 25(OH)D > 30 ng/mL;severe deficiency 高劑量 (50,000 IU q wk × 8 wk) loading 然後 maintenance。Active calcitriol only in CKD 進階。


46.4.16 Q16(Children with HIV growth)

8 歲 HIV-infected child + ART well-controlled + height velocity ↓。下列最可能 mechanism

A. 飲食不足 only
B. GH axis dysfunction(IGF-1 ↓ + GH resistance from chronic inflammation)+ delayed puberty
C. Vitamin D only
D. ART 直接抑 GH
E. 心理因素

答案:B

Pediatric PWH growth dysfunction:IGF-1 ↓ + GH resistance from chronic inflammation + low BMI + delayed puberty + chronic illness。Even ART well-controlled 仍 see height velocity ↓。Evaluation:IGF-1 + GH stim + bone age + nutrition。Recombinant GH (rhGH) replacement 個別化(部分 case 改善)。


46.4.17 Q17(HIV thymic NET in MEN1 - false interaction)

PWH 病人合併 MEN1 + thymic NET surveillance。下列最合適

A. 不需 surveillance
B. q 5y chest CT 標準 surveillance(呼應 Ch 42 update);PWH 不改 surveillance schedule 但 chronic inflammation 加成 risk needs monitoring
C. q 6 mo CT
D. Forget MEN1
E. ART 取代 surveillance

答案:B

呼應 Ch 42:MEN1 thymic NET surveillance q 5y chest CT(2024 update);PWH 不改 schedule 但慢性發炎 + immunosuppression 可能加成 cancer 風險 → 多學科 endocrinology + oncology + HIV care。


46.4.18 Q18(Tesamorelin mechanism)

Tesamorelin 機轉?

A. Direct lipase inhibitor
B. GHRH analogue → 刺激 GH 內生 → ↓ visceral fat
C. Insulin sensitizer
D. PCSK9 inhibitor
E. SSA

答案:B

Tesamorelin (Egrifta) 是 GHRH analogue → 刺激內生 GH 分泌 → 影響 fat metabolism → ↓ visceral fat ~15% over 26 wk。FDA approved for HIV-related lipodystrophy。停藥反彈。副作用:注射部位反應、joint pain、glucose 微升。


46.4.19 Q19(Drug interaction example)

PWH 服 cobicistat-boosted ART + 新處方 quetiapine for sleep。下列最重要警示

A. Synergy good
B. Cobicistat strong CYP3A4 inhibitor → quetiapine levels 大增 → CNS depression、QT 延長 risk
C. Quetiapine 影響 ART
D. 兩者 OK
E. 增 quetiapine 劑量

答案:B

Cobicistat / Ritonavir 強 CYP3A4 inhibitor;quetiapine CYP3A4-dependent → 系統性 levels ↑ → CNS depression + QT 延長 risk。Avoid combination 或 dose reduce drastically;alternative:trazodone, mirtazapine 為 safer alternative。Liverpool HIV Drug Interactions database 是必查資源。


46.4.20 Q20(Pediatric HIV bone)

pediatric HIV-infected child 骨密度監測?

A. 不需
B. DEXA q 1-2 yr + Ca/Vit D + 必要時 bisphosphonate(selected)+ ART optimization for bone
C. Annual MRI
D. Calcitonin only
E. PTH high dose

答案:B

Pediatric PWH BMD ↓ 多 (delayed peak bone mass) → DEXA q 1-2 yr surveillance + Ca/Vit D baseline;severe case bisphosphonate individual。ART optimization:TAF 較 TDF bone safer。Lifestyle (weight-bearing exercise + 戒菸 + 限酒).


46.4.21 Q21(HIV adrenal in modern era)

ART 完善 PWH 病人若出現 adrenal insufficiency,最常見 cause

A. CMV adrenalitis
B. TB
C. Glucocorticoid use 致 HPA 抑制(exogenous)
D. Direct HIV
E. Lymphoma

答案:C

Modern ART era:primary adrenal insufficiency 由 opportunistic infection 致已罕;最常見 = secondary,因 glucocorticoid use(治療 PCP/IRIS/cancer)→ HPA 抑制。Ritonavir/cobicistat + fluticasone interaction 加成。Pre-ART era CMV adrenalitis 為主因。


46.4.22 Q22(Long-acting cabotegravir + rilpivirine)

Cabenuva (cabotegravir + rilpivirine) IM monthly 對 endocrine 影響?

A. 完全 negative
B. 改變 ART delivery;對 metabolic 影響仍累積數據;理論減少 oral drug interaction 但局部 IM 副作用
C. 增加 weight gain 5×
D. 致 immediate AI
E. 取代所有 ART

答案:B

Long-acting cabotegravir + rilpivirine (Cabenuva) IM monthly → simplified adherence;metabolic effects 仍累積(INSTI cabotegravir 部分 weight gain);oral drug interaction 減少(無 daily oral interaction);副作用:injection site reactions、long t½ 致 missed dose tail。


46.4.23 Q23(綜合 — ART 起始 + 內分泌 baseline)

新診 HIV 35 歲男 ART 起始前 baseline。下列最完整 endocrine baseline panel

A. TSH only
B. Fasting lipid + glucose + HbA1c + Vit D + Ca + LFT + Cr + BMI + waist circumference + testosterone (if symptoms) + DEXA (if ≥ 50 yo / ≥ 40 with risks) + TSH baseline + PSA + DRE (if ≥ 50)
C. Adrenal cortisol only
D. Bone density only
E. None needed

答案:B

2022 IAS-USA + DHHS guideline:ART 起始前 endocrine baseline 全面;ART 起始後內分泌變化(lipid、weight、bone)需動態 follow。Drug interaction + comorbidity assessment。


46.4.24 Q24(PWH GLP1-RA for ART weight gain)

40 歲女性 PWH ART (DTG/TAF/FTC) 1 yr ↑ 7 kg + BMI 33 + insulin resistance。下列emerging evidence

A. 不能用 GLP1-RA
B. Semaglutide / Liraglutide 對 ART weight gain 有 emerging benefit;個別化 + drug interaction 注意;ART switch individual
C. 必須 stop ART
D. Tesamorelin
E. Bariatric immediately

答案:B

ART weight gain (INSTI/TAF era) 是 2020s 新關注。GLP1-RA / Tirzepatide for ART weight gain:emerging studies;個別化 + drug interaction with ART minimal(SC injection)+ ART switch individual considered for viral suppression > weight gain priority。Tesamorelin focus on visceral;GLP1-RA focus on weight + insulin resistance + cardiometabolic。


46.4.25 Q25(綜合應用 — PWH multifactorial endocrinopathy)

55 歲男 PWH 20 yr + ART (DTG/TAF/FTC) + low testosterone (210 ng/dL) + osteoporosis (T -2.8) + DM HbA1c 7.5 + hyperlipidemia (LDL 130) + lipohypertrophy + bone pain。下列最現代整合 plan

A. 只 testosterone replacement
B. Testosterone replacement individual + DEXA + bisphosphonate (zoledronate) + Ca/Vit D + ART switch (TDF→TAF) + Pitavastatin for ASCVD primary prevention (REPRIEVE) + Metformin/SGLT2i + Tesamorelin (lipohypertrophy 嚴重 + visceral fat) + multidisciplinary
C. ART stop
D. 只 metformin
E. Single endocrine focus

答案:B

多腺體 PWH 整合 management: 1. Hypogonadism → testosterone replacement individual + PSA + Hct 2. Osteoporosis → DEXA + bisphosphonate (zoledronate) + Ca/Vit D + ART optimization 3. DM → metformin first + SGLT2i / GLP1-RA + lifestyle 4. Hyperlipidemia → REPRIEVE pitavastatin + lifestyle 5. Lipohypertrophy → Tesamorelin if severe + lifestyle 6. ART optimization: TDF → TAF + monitor weight gain 7. Multidisciplinary team: HIV specialist + endocrinology + cardiology + pharmacy + dietitian + 心理

REPRIEVE paradigm:multi-organ PWH 即使 LDL 不顯高也應 statin。


46.5 🎯 隨堂 7 Cases

# 患者 診斷 重點 take-home
1 45 歲男 PWH ritonavir + fluticasone nasal spray 3 月 + Cushingoid Iatrogenic Cushing + HPA 抑制 Switch fluticasone → beclomethasone;考慮 ART switch;HC stress dose during taper
2 50 歲男 PWH testosterone 250 + SHBG 高 + LH 4 Multifactorial hypogonadism (secondary) Free testosterone + SHBG correction;testosterone replacement individual + PSA/Hct/CV
3 50 歲 PWH ART 12 mo 後 femoral neck T -2.6 ART-related osteoporosis TDF → TAF switch + Ca/Vit D + zoledronate IV q yr
4 38 歲 PWH 髖關節急性痛 + X-ray normal + 過去 corticosteroid use AVN (early) MRI gold standard;Ficat staging;core decompression in early,後 全髖置換
5 40 歲女 PWH ART switch DTG/TAF 後 ↑ 6 kg INSTI/TAF era weight gain DAWNING/ADVANCE/NAMSAL;女性 + 黑人特顯;GLP1-RA emerging + lifestyle + ART switch individual
6 45 歲 PWH 嚴重 visceral lipohypertrophy + abdominal HIV-related visceral lipohypertrophy Tesamorelin 2 mg SC qd ↓ visceral fat 15%;停藥反彈;GHRH analogue
7 55 歲 PWH ART well-controlled + LDL 110 + age 55 REPRIEVE-style primary prevention Pitavastatin 4 mg PO qd even with LDL not 過高;考慮 colchicine 0.5 mg qd(trial-supported)

46.6 🌟 8 Pearls

  1. HIV 病人內分泌異常多 multifactorial:HIV 本身 + opportunistic + 慢性發炎 + ART medications + 老化加速;single-axis thinking 不適合

  2. REPRIEVE trial 2023 是 paradigm shift:PWH age 40-75 + low-to-moderate ASCVD risk + pitavastatin → MACE ↓ 35% (primary prevention);多 PWH 即使 LDL 不高也應 statin。

  3. Drug interaction 是 endocrinology 中 critical:Ritonavir/cobicistat 強 CYP3A4 inhibitor → 避 simvastatin/lovastatin、fluticasone/budesonide、quetiapine、midazolam;Liverpool HIV Drug Interactions database 是必查資源。

  4. TDF → TAF switch 改善 bone density;過去 d-drug era lipoatrophy 已減少;新 issue:INSTI/TAF era weight gain(女性 + 黑人特顯)。

  5. HbA1c 在 PWH 多 underestimate:reduced RBC 半衰期 + chronic inflammation;fasting glucose / OGTT 補充。

  6. Tesamorelin for HIV lipohypertrophy 是獨特適應症藥:GHRH analogue → ↓ visceral fat 15%;停藥反彈;FDA approved。

  7. 多腺體 PWH 整合 management:testosterone replacement + bisphosphonate + statin + metformin + ART switch + multidisciplinary;老化加速 + 慢性發炎 + ART 三軸整合。

  8. PWH cervical cancer screening q 6-12 mo(vs 一般 q 3-5 yr)+ HPV vaccination 強烈推薦;HPV + immunosuppression → 5-8× cervical cancer risk。


46.7 🔗 Cross-ref to Other Chapters

連到的章節 對位的內容
Ch 13(Adrenal Cortex) AI in HIV + opportunistic infection + glucocorticoid suppression
Ch 17(Testes) Male hypogonadism multifactorial in HIV
Ch 25(Female Reproductive) POI + cervical cancer in HIV
Ch 29(Osteoporosis) HIV bone loss + ART effects + bisphosphonate
Ch 33(T2DM IR) PWH IR + visceral adiposity
Ch 38(Complications) PWH atherosclerosis + 慢性發炎 + REPRIEVE
Ch 40(Obesity) INSTI/TAF era weight gain
Ch 41(Lipoprotein) HIV dyslipidemia + statin choice + drug interaction
Ch 11(Hypothyroidism) HIV thyroid dysfunction (rare modern era)
Ch 42(Endocrine Neoplasia) MEN1 + PWH 整合 surveillance

46.8 📌 必背數字總表(章末整理 ~50 條)

46.8.1 流行病學

主題 數字
全球 PWH 38.4 million
美國 PWH 1.2+ million
Hypogonadism in male PWH 30-50%
DM in PWH 12-15%
Insulin resistance in PWH 30-40%
Vit D deficiency in PWH 60-70%
Hyponatremia in PWH 30-40%
Cervical cancer risk vs general 5-8×
AVN risk vs general 5-10×
ASCVD risk vs HIV-negative 1.5-2×
Bone density ↓ vs HIV-negative ~6% femoral neck
Osteoporosis (women / men) 8-15% / 5-10%
ART 起始 BMD ↓ 2-6% over 2 yr

46.8.2 Trials / Paradigm

Trial 結論
REPRIEVE 2023 Pitavastatin 4 mg in PWH ↓ MACE 35% primary prevention
DAWNING 2018-2019 DTG vs efavirenz weight gain
ADVANCE 2020 DTG + TAF weight gain 高
NAMSAL 2021 DTG ↑ ~5 kg over 1-2 yr
Tesamorelin Week 26/52 Visceral fat ↓ 15% sustained
2022 IAS-USA + DHHS 2022 HIV care endocrine surveillance integration

46.8.3 ART era 重點

主題 數字
INSTI weight gain 1-2 yr 3-5 kg
Tesamorelin visceral fat ↓ ~15% (Week 26)
GH (Serostim) for AIDS wasting 6 mg SC qd × 12 wk
TAF vs TDF bone TAF 改善

46.8.4 藥物互動 (CYP3A4)

ART 互動 paradigm
Ritonavir / Cobicistat Strong CYP3A4 INHIBITOR — 避 simvastatin/lovastatin/fluticasone/budesonide/quetiapine
Efavirenz Strong CYP3A4 INDUCER — 影響 OC/warfarin/anticonvulsants
Pitavastatin Minimal CYP — REPRIEVE 標準
Beclomethasone Less CYP3A4-dependent — fluticasone replacement

46.8.5 Surveillance Schedule(2022 IAS-USA + DHHS)

項目 Frequency
Lipid + glucose + HbA1c Annual
DEXA postmenopausal women + ≥50 yo men + ≥40 with risk q1-2y
Testosterone (if symptoms) Individual
Vitamin D + Ca Baseline + repeat
Cervical cancer screening q 6-12 mo
BP Annual
Cardiovascular risk reassessment Annual
Drug interaction review Each ART change

46.8.6 治療藥物

治療 劑量
HC for HIV AI 15-25 mg/day
Vit D3 baseline 1000-2000 IU/day
Ca baseline 1000 mg/day
Tesamorelin 2 mg SC qd
Pitavastatin 4 mg PO qd (REPRIEVE)
Colchicine (CV trials) 0.5 mg PO qd
Recombinant GH for wasting 6 mg SC qd × 12 wk
Bisphosphonate (alendronate) 70 mg PO q wk
Bisphosphonate (zoledronate) 5 mg IV q yr

46.9 📖 章末小結

Williams 15e Ch 46 把 HIV-related endocrine 整合在 ART era + 老化加速 + 慢性發炎範式下。我們用五句話收尾:

  1. HIV endocrine 多 multifactorial:HIV 本身 + opportunistic + 慢性發炎 + ART + 老化;single-axis thinking 不適合。
  2. REPRIEVE 2023 paradigm shift:PWH age 40-75 + low-to-moderate ASCVD risk → pitavastatin primary prevention;多 PWH 即使 LDL 不高也應 statin。
  3. Drug interactions 是 endocrinology 中 critical:Ritonavir/cobicistat 強 CYP3A4 inhibitor 避 simvastatin/fluticasone;Liverpool HIV Drug Interactions database 必查。
  4. TDF → TAF 改善 boneINSTI/TAF era weight gain 是 2020s 新關注(GLP1-RA emerging);Tesamorelin 對 visceral lipohypertrophy 唯一 FDA-approved。
  5. 多腺體 PWH 整合 + multidisciplinary team:HIV + endocrinology + cardiology + dietitian + psychiatry + social work;老化加速 + 慢性發炎驅動 multi-system endocrinopathy。

下一章 Ch 47 等老闆指示。

本章 Williams 15e 原文 reference:Grinspoon SK, Carr A. HIV/AIDS Endocrine Disorders. In: Williams Textbook of Endocrinology, 15th ed. Elsevier; 2024.