23 Chapter 23 — Physiology and Disorders of Puberty(青春期生理與障礙)

本章定位:Section VI B Childhood 的青春期核心章。Williams 15e 原文 18,016 行(與 Ch 5、Ch 13、Ch 22 同級的巨型章),整合 HPG 軸 reawakening 神經內分泌(KNDy neurons / kisspeptin / MKRN3 / leptin)+ Tanner staging + Adrenarche vs Gonadarche + 性早熟完整鑑別(central CPP / peripheral / McCune-Albright / familial male-limited / variants:premature thelarche / premature adrenarche / premature menarche)+ 性遲發鑑別(CDGP / Kallmann syndrome / CHH / Klinefelter / FHA / anorexia nervosa / Functional hypogonadism)+ GnRH agonist 治療(leuprolide / triptorelin / histrelin implant)+ GnRH antagonist (degarelix) + Transgender adolescent care + 全球 puberty 提早趨勢 (secular trend)Fellow 考題佔 ~7-9%,CPP work-up + 治療 indications、premature thelarche vs CPP 鑑別、McCune-Albright、Kallmann (KAL1/FGFR1/PROK2)、constitutional delay vs Kallmann 鑑別、GnRH agonist 機轉、transgender care 為高命中率區。

與其他章節 cross-ref: - Ch 5 Neuroendocrinology — KNDy neurons / kisspeptin signaling 深入 - Ch 6 Pituitary Physiology — gonadotropin axis basics - Ch 7 Pituitary Adenomas — gonadotropin-secreting tumor 罕見 cause - Ch 17 The Testes — Klinefelter / Kallmann 詳述 - Ch 15 Female Reproductive Axis — POI / FHA - Ch 21 DSD — sex differentiation 連動 - Ch 22 Growth — pubertal growth spurt - Ch 24 Transgender Endocrinology — adolescent transition care 詳述

2023-2025 關鍵更新: - 2023 Endocrine Society guideline update on Pubertal Disorders:CPP age cutoffs 女 < 8、男 < 9(部分 cohort 可能 review);強化 molecular test for sporadic CPP(MKRN3 / DLK1 / KISS1 / KISS1R) - MKRN3 mutation (paternal imprinting) — sporadic / familial CPP;maternal allele silenced(imprinted)→ paternal mutation 才表現;2013 NEJM 發現後成 CPP 主要 monogenic cause - DLK1 mutation — CPP + 部分 metabolic features;2017 後新增 monogenic cause - Histrelin subcutaneous implant (Supprelin LA) — 12-month implant;CPP 治療另一選項;台灣未上市 - Leuprolide acetate:仍是 CPP 主流藥物(每 1-3 個月 IM);台灣健保有限給付 - Triptorelin pamoate (Decapeptyl):每月或 3 個月 IM;台灣已上市 - Global secular trend:puberty 提早:女 thelarche age 從 1990s 平均 ~10.5 → 2020s ~ 9.5(多 cohort 數據);environmental factors(obesity、endocrine disruptors)+ epigenetic - Bremelanotide (MC4R agonist) 雖 FDA 2019 用於 HSDD,MC4R 與 puberty timing 也相關(POMC / leptin axis);mutation 影響 HPG 軸 - 2024 Endocrine Society transgender adolescent care guideline (revised):強化 multidisciplinary team + 心理評估 + GnRH analog stage 1 + cross-sex hormone stage 2 timing flexibility;伴隨 social / political controversy 但醫學原則不變 - Aromatase inhibitor (letrozole / anastrozole) for boys with familial male-limited CPP / advanced bone age — off-label,可延緩 epiphyseal closure - NK3R antagonist (fezolinetant) 雖 FDA 2023 用於 menopausal hot flashes,KNDy pathway 與 puberty timing 機轉相關,未來可能新治療類別 - Klinefelter early TRT in adolescence:2023-2024 RCT 數據增加;early intervention 可能改善 neurocognitive + bone 但 fertility 影響仍待 long-term


23.1 🔥 1-Page Summary(15 大核心重點)

1. HPG 軸 reawakening — Mini-puberty + Childhood quiescence + Pubertal onset

Fetal HPG axis 活躍(mid-gestation)
   ↓
Birth 後 LH/FSH 短暫 surge("Mini-puberty of infancy")→ 男 0-6 個月 / 女 0-12 個月
   ↓
Childhood quiescence(age 1-9)— GnRH pulse 抑制
   ↓ MKRN3 等 brake 解開
Pubertal onset:
   - 女 thelarche ~10 yo(範圍 8-13)
   - 男 testicular volume > 4 mL ~11 yo(範圍 9-14)
   ↓
KNDy neurons → Kisspeptin pulses → GnRH pulses → LH/FSH → gonadal steroid
   ↓
完整 pubertal cascade

KNDy = Kisspeptin / Neurokinin B / Dynorphin — co-localized neurons in arcuate nucleus;驅動 GnRH pulse generator。

抑制 brake: - MKRN3 (Makorin RING finger 3):paternal imprinting;childhood quiescence brake - DLK1LIN28B:similar brake function

Kisspeptin = pubertal “ignition”: - 1999 年 KISS1/KISS1R 發現後 paradigm shift - KISS1R inactivating mutation → CHH(central hypogonadotropic hypogonadism) - KISS1R activating mutation → CPP(central precocious puberty,罕見)

2. Tanner staging + age normal range

Stage 女(breast) 男(genitalia) pubic hair(兩性)
1 Prepubertal Testicular volume < 4 mL None
2 Breast bud(女 ~10.5 yo 起) Testes ≥ 4 mL(男 ~11.5 yo 起);scrotum thinning Sparse straight hair
3 Breast + areola enlarge together Testes 6-12 mL;penis lengthening Coarser, curlier, darker
4 Areola + papilla 形成 mound Testes 15-20 mL;penis girth + glans Adult-type, not full extent
5 Adult breast contour Adult testes(> 20 mL)+ external genitalia Full adult distribution

性別差: - Tanner 2-3 是 puberty hallmark;女早男晚 - :breast bud 是第一個 sign;之後 pubic hair → growth spurt → menarche(多 ~12.5 yo / Tanner 4) - testicular enlargement (4 mL)第一個 sign(不是 pubic hair!);之後 penile growth、pubic hair、growth spurt(晚期 Tanner 3-4)

3. Adrenarche vs Gonadarche — 兩個獨立 puberty 軸

Adrenarche Gonadarche
Onset ~ 6-8 yo(早於 gonadarche) ~ 9-13 yo
Driver Adrenal cortex zona reticularis maturation → DHEA-S ↑ HPG axis reawakening → LH/FSH ↑
Manifestations Pubic hair、axillary hair、body odor、acne Breast / testicular development、growth spurt、reproductive maturation
Physiology Independent of HPG axis Dependent on HPG axis

重要adrenarche 早於 gonadarche,獨立調控。premature pubarche(單純 pubic hair early)多是 premature adrenarche,不必然代表 CPP。

4. Precocious Puberty — 定義 + 三大類別

Definition: - 女 < 8 yo 開始 puberty - 男 < 9 yo 開始 puberty - :global secular trend 顯示 puberty 提早,部分 cohort 可能 reconsider age cutoffs;但 Endocrine Society 仍維持 < 8 / < 9。

三大類別

類別 機轉 LH/FSH 代表
Central PP (CPP / GnRH-dependent) HPG axis 早期啟動 → 真 puberty 流程 Pubertal LH (basal LH ≥ 0.3 mIU/mL or GnRH-stim peak ≥ 5) Idiopathic 90% female / 50% male、CNS lesion(hamartoma、glioma、craniopharyngioma、hydrocephalus、cranial RT)、MKRN3、DLK1、KISS1R activating
Peripheral PP (PPP / GnRH-independent) 性 steroid 從非 HPG 來源(gonad / adrenal / 外源) Suppressed LH/FSH(high steroid 反饋抑) McCune-Albright、Familial male-limited CPP(LH receptor activating mut)、CAH virilizing、ovarian/adrenal/testicular tumor、外源性 steroid(OCP misuse、cosmetic cream)
Variants(incomplete) 單一 component 提早,HPG axis 不啟動 Prepubertal Premature thelarche(單純 breast bud,多自限)、Premature adrenarche / pubarche(adrenal androgen 早)、Premature menarche(罕,需 work-up)

女性 CPP 90% idiopathic;男性 CPP 50% 有 underlying CNS pathology → 男性 CPP 必 MRI sella + brain

5. CPP Work-up

Step 1 — 確認 puberty progression(連續 6 月)
   - Tanner staging 進展 (vs static)
   - Growth velocity 加速
   - Bone age ≥ 1 yr advanced
   ↓
Step 2 — 確認 GnRH-dependent
   - **Basal early-morning LH ≥ 0.3 mIU/mL** (sensitive immunoassay)
   - 或 GnRH stim test (leuprolide 20 μg/kg SC, 30/60/120 min sample):peak LH ≥ 5 = pubertal
   - LH:FSH ratio > 1 = pubertal pattern
   - Estradiol(女)/ testosterone(男)pubertal levels
   ↓
Step 3 — 區分 CPP vs PPP
   - CPP = pubertal LH + sex steroid up
   - PPP = suppressed LH + sex steroid up(exogenous or autonomous source)
   ↓
Step 4 — 找 CPP 病因
   - **男孩 CPP → MRI sella + brain 必做**(50% organic)
   - 女孩 CPP < 6 yo → MRI 必做
   - 女孩 CPP 6-8 yo → MRI 仍 recommend(hamartoma 漏檢)
   - 6-8 yo 後可考慮分子 test(MKRN3 / DLK1 / KISS1 / KISS1R)

6. CPP Treatment — GnRH Agonist

機轉:persistent GnRH agonist exposure → pituitary gonadotrope desensitization + downregulation → paradoxical suppression of LH/FSH → halt puberty progression

藥物: - Leuprolide acetate (Lupron) depot:每月 7.5-15 mg IM每 3 個月 11.25-22.5 mg IM(台灣健保有條件給付) - Triptorelin pamoate (Decapeptyl):每月 3.75 mg IM 或每 3 個月 11.25 mg - Histrelin SC implant (Supprelin LA):12-month implant;台灣未上市

Adequate suppression 監測: - 每 3-6 個月 GnRH-stim 或 leuprolide-stim:LH peak < 4 mIU/mL = adequate - 或 LH < 1 random - Sex steroid prepubertal levels - Tanner halt + bone age advancement < chronological

Stop GnRH-agonist 時機: - Bone age 12-12.5 (女) / 13-13.5 (男) — 接近自然 puberty timing - 或 height 已達 target - Stop 後 puberty 自然 resume,多 6-12 月恢復;女多 1-2 年後 menarche

Treatment goal: - Increase final adult height(最重要 — 早治療 final height +5-10 cm) - Delay psychosocial / cognitive maturation mismatch - Prevent menarche too early

Adverse effects: - 第一次 dose flare(短期 sex steroid surge)→ 部分病人 vaginal bleeding 在第 2-3 週 - Injection site reaction(depot)/ implant rejection - Mood swings、headache - Bone density mild decrease during treatment(多在 stop 後 catch-up) - Possible 影響 future fertility — 累積 evidence 顯示 normal

7. McCune-Albright Syndrome (MAS)

  • 基因GNAS post-zygotic mosaic activating mutation(R201)— 不是 germline,所以 phenotype mosaic 不對稱
  • 三聯
    1. Polyostotic fibrous dysplasia(多骨纖維異化)— 不對稱、含 craniofacial、肋骨、長骨
    2. Café-au-lait spots(牛奶咖啡色斑)— 邊緣不規則 “coast of Maine”(vs NF1 “coast of California”)
    3. Endocrine hyperfunction(多軸):
      • Peripheral precocious puberty(女多 ovarian cyst → estrogen / 男 testicular enlargement)
      • Hyperthyroidism(autonomous nodule)
      • GH excess(pituitary gigantism)
      • Cushing syndrome(adrenal nodular hyperplasia)
      • Hyperprolactinemia
      • FGF23-related hypophosphatemic rickets
  • Treatment
    • PPP(女):aromatase inhibitor (letrozole / anastrozole) + tamoxifen — block ovarian estrogen
    • PPP(男):anti-androgen (spironolactone / bicalutamide) + AI(block aromatization)
    • Bone:bisphosphonate for fibrous dysplasia + denosumab consideration
    • 後期 GnRH agonist if CPP 重疊(PPP 後 HPG axis 二次啟動)

8. Familial Male-Limited Precocious Puberty (Testotoxicosis)

  • 基因:LHCGR (LH receptor) activating mutation — AD
  • 男性表現:autonomous Leydig cell activation → testosterone ↑ → puberty 4-5 yo
  • 女性 carrier asymptomatic(女 LH receptor 在 ovary 但需要 FSH 共同 — 單純 LH activation 不足以 trigger ovarian function)
  • Lab:T ↑↑、LH suppressed(exogenous-like negative feedback)
  • Treatment:spironolactone / bicalutamide + AI(letrozole / anastrozole);後期 HPG 二次啟動加 GnRH-agonist

9. Premature Thelarche / Adrenarche / Menarche

Variant 定義 Workup Treatment
Premature thelarche Isolated breast development < 8 yo,無其他 puberty signs;多 6-24 個月 Bone age + 系列 follow-up(多自限);exclude estrogen exposure 多 observation;progression → workup as CPP
Premature adrenarche / pubarche Pubic hair / axillary hair / body odor < 8 yo(女)/ 9 yo(男) Bone age + DHEA-S + 17-OHP(rule out non-classic CAH)+ androstenedione 多 observation;rule out NCAH
Premature menarche Vaginal bleeding 不伴隨其他 puberty signs Pelvic US(rule out tumor、foreign body、trauma、abuse) Address specific cause;isolated 罕

Premature thelarche 與 CPP 鑑別 key: - Thelarche:no growth spurt、no bone age advance、breast 多無進展或自限 - CPP:growth spurt + bone age advance + Tanner progress > 6 mo

10. Delayed Puberty — Definition + 鑑別

Definition: - 女 13 yo 仍無 thelarche - 男 14 yo 仍無 testicular enlargement (>4 mL)

鑑別三大類

類別 LH/FSH 代表
Constitutional Delay of Growth and Puberty (CDGP) 低/低 normal(自限) Most common 男性 (60-80%);family Hx delayed puberty + bone age delay;final height normal
Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (central) Low LH/FSH Kallmann (KAL1/FGFR1/PROK2/CHD7) + anosmia;CHH without anosmia (KISS1R, GnRHR, etc); pituitary tumor / craniopharyngioma; functional (anorexia, FHA, athletic, chronic illness)
Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (primary) High LH/FSH Klinefelter (47,XXY);Turner (45,X);POI;orchitis / chemo-RT;anorchia;NR5A1 / CYP17 / DHEA biosynthetic defect

最重要鑑別CDGP vs Kallmann/CHH(兩個 LH/FSH 都低,bone age 都 delay): - CDGP:family Hx delayed puberty (mom > 14 menarche, dad > 17 shave) + 自然會 develop(only timing 延遲) - Kallmann:常 anosmia / hyposmia + family Hx hypogonadism / 不孕 + 不會自然 develop(永久 deficiency)

鑑別工具: - GnRH stim test(變異大,已少用 isolated) - Inhibin B:CDGP 多升,Kallmann 持續低 - Sleep-augmented LH(青春期 mid-puberty 有 sleep-related LH surge) - Trial of low-dose testosterone (男) 6 個月:CDGP 多自然 progress;Kallmann 停藥後重新沉默 - OLfaction test(Kallmann anosmia / hyposmia)— UPSIT

11. Kallmann Syndrome / CHH Genetics

基因 特徵
KAL1 (ANOS1) X-linked;anosmia + GnRH neuron migration defect;renal agenesis 30%(unilateral);synkinesia(mirror movements)
FGFR1 AD;Kallmann or CHH;cleft lip/palate、dental agenesis、skeletal anomalies;syndromic features
FGF8 AD;類似 FGFR1
PROK2 / PROKR2 Kallmann;neurologic features (epilepsy、obesity)
CHD7 CHARGE syndrome(Coloboma, Heart defect, Atresia of choanae, Retardation, Genitourinary, Ear abnormalities)
KISS1 / KISS1R CHH (no anosmia);KISS1R inactivating
GnRHR CHH;GnRH 受體缺陷
TAC3 / TACR3 CHH (KNDy NKB pathway)
LEP / LEPR Leptin / leptin receptor mutation;obesity + hypogonadotropic hypogonadism

WES 對 unexplained CHH 診斷率 ~50-70%;持續發現新 oligogenic interactions。

Treatment: - 男性:testosterone replacement(成人) or HCG ± FSH for fertility induction(保留生育) - 女性:estrogen + progestin replacement(成人) or pulsatile GnRH / FSH+LH for fertility induction - Adolescent induction:低 dose testosterone(男)/ low-dose ethinylestradiol(女)逐漸 ramp up over 2-3 yr

12. Functional Hypothalamic Amenorrhea (FHA)(cross-ref Ch 15):

  • Mechanism:energy availability ↓ → leptin ↓ → kisspeptin neurons ↓ → GnRH pulse ↓ → LH/FSH ↓
  • Common triggers
    • Anorexia nervosa
    • Athletic / dance / ballet (low body fat)
    • Stress
    • Chronic illness
  • Lab:low LH/FSH、low estradiol、normal/low prolactin、low IGF-1
  • Treatment
    • Restore energy availability(nutrition, weight gain, activity reduction)— 多 6-24 個月恢復
    • CBT 對 anorexia
    • HRT: 如果 6-12 個月 amenorrhea 仍持續 + bone density loss → estrogen replacement
    • Avoid OCP(過去常用),不能恢復 leptin/HPG signaling

13. Klinefelter Pubertal Course(cross-ref Ch 17 / Ch 21):

  • 47,XXY;多在 puberty 時 testes failure 顯著
  • 早期 puberty 可能正常 onset(Leydig 起初 functional)
  • Mid-late puberty Leydig failure → testosterone fall + LH/FSH compensatory rise
  • Final phenotype:testes 小(< 4-6 mL)、tall stature、gynecomastia、infertility
  • Early TRT in adolescence (Tanner 2-3):2023-2024 RCT 中;可能改善 neurocognitive + bone;fertility implications 待 long-term

14. Transgender Adolescent Care(cross-ref Ch 24):

2024 Endocrine Society guideline (revised)

  • Stage 1 (early puberty)GnRH agonist 暫停 puberty progression;reversible;給予時間心理評估
  • Stage 2 (later, ~ 16 yo or after multidisciplinary assessment)Cross-sex hormone therapy
    • Trans-male(FtM):testosterone esters / gel
    • Trans-female(MtF):estradiol(oral / patch / IM)+ ± antiandrogen(spironolactone / GnRH-agonist 持續)
  • Multidisciplinary teamadolescent psychiatry / endocrinology / parents / patient
  • Reversible vs partly reversible vs irreversible:GnRH-agonist reversible;estrogen → some breast development partial reversible;testosterone → voice deepening + body hair irreversible

Controversies + 科學 stance: - 政治化 + 媒體噪音多;但醫學原則「reduce gender dysphoria + improve mental health outcome」evidence-based - 2024 Endocrine Society 重申 evidence-based guideline 立場

15. Global Secular Trend — Puberty 提早

  • 女 thelarche age:1990s ~10.5 → 2020s ~9.5(多 cohort 數據)
  • 男 testicular volume > 4 mL:1990s ~11.5 → 2020s ~10.5
  • Drivers(部分 evidence):
    • Obesity(adipose leptin → kisspeptin → puberty)
    • Endocrine disruptors(BPA, phthalates, organophosphates)
    • Epigenetic + nutrition + early-life environment
    • Family / racial differences(African American > Hispanic > White > Asian for thelarche timing)
  • 臨床 implication:6-7 yo thelarche 不必然 pathology,但仍要 work-up,因為部分 ovarian / CNS pathology 可早期表現

23.2 📘 Detail(逐段書面詳解 + 比較表 + 記憶口訣 + MCQ)

重切說明:本 Detail 區分為 23.1–23.7 七個 sub-section,與 Williams 15e 原書 Ch 23 七個內容 sub-section(Introduction / Evolution of Puberty / Adrenarche / Physiology of Puberty / Normal Pubertal Development / Delayed Puberty / Precocious Puberty)一一對應。原書沒有獨立 Transgender 章(那是 Ch 24),但 adolescent transition 起點是 puberty,因此整合進 23.5 Normal Pubertal Development 作為「青春期被人為暫停 / 重新導向」的延伸。


23.3 23.1 Introduction(為什麼我們要讀這一章)

23.3.1 23.1.1 Puberty 為何是內分泌核心

我們在臨床上會遇到三類常見場景:① 5–8 歲的孩子提早出現 secondary sexual characteristics(family、school、pediatrician 焦慮極高)② 13–15 歲的孩子完全沒進入 puberty(家長擔心 final height + 生育)③ 青少年表達 gender dysphoria 來尋求 endocrinology 評估。三者都涉及 HPG 軸 reawakening 的 timing 與 trajectory,這就是本章的核心。

23.3.2 23.1.2 本章在 Williams 15e 的定位

原書 Ch 23 約 18,016 行,與 Ch 5(Neuroendocrinology)、Ch 13(Adrenal cortex)、Ch 22(Growth)並列為 Section VI 巨型章。原書七個 sub-section:

原書 sub-section 對應講義 sub-section
Introduction 23.1
Evolution of Puberty 23.2
Adrenarche 23.3
Physiology of Puberty 23.4
Normal Pubertal Development 23.5
Delayed Puberty 23.6
Precocious Puberty 23.7

23.3.3 23.1.3 Fellow 考試命中率 ~7–9%

考題集中於:CPP work-up + 治療 indication / premature thelarche vs CPP 鑑別 / McCune-Albright 三聯與治療 / Kallmann 基因型對應臨床表現 / Constitutional Delay vs Kallmann 鑑別 / GnRH agonist 機轉 / transgender adolescent stage 1/2 reversibility 分級。


23.4 23.2 Evolution of Puberty(演化視角下的 puberty timing)

23.4.1 23.2.1 為什麼演化會選擇 “juvenile pause”

我們可以把 puberty 想成一個被多重 brake 鎖住的火車,演化選擇在童年期持續抑制 GnRH pulse,是因為:① 等個體成長到足以承擔生殖代價(足夠 body fat + 骨骼 + 免疫成熟)② 避開高死亡率的童年早期投入生殖。這也是為什麼 leptin(脂肪量代理 signal)kisspeptin(puberty ignition) 的耦合在演化上如此關鍵。

23.4.2 23.2.2 Determinants of Pubertal Timing — 五大 driver

依 Williams 15e 整理,puberty timing 受以下 5 大因素 modulate:

類別 例子 / 機轉
Genetic Heritability ~50–80%;GWAS hits(LIN28B、MKRN3、TAC3R、KISS1R、FTO 等);Maternal age at menarche 與女兒 menarche 高度相關
Nutrition / metabolic Leptin (adipose-derived) 是 permissive signal not trigger;childhood obesity → puberty 提早;undernutrition (anorexia / chronic illness) → puberty 延遲
Maternal factors Birth weight (SGA → premature pubarche risk + 後續 PCOS / metabolic risk per DOHaD);breastfeeding duration;maternal smoking
Stress / psychosocial Adverse childhood experience、early father absence (life history theory)、chronic stress 多 acceleration 而非 delay
Environmental / chemical Endocrine disruptors(BPA、phthalates、PFAS、organophosphates)、PFOS in breast milk;COVID-19 lockdown 後多 cohort 顯示 puberty 提早

23.4.3 23.2.3 Global Secular Trend — Puberty 提早

我們在 1-Page Summary 第 15 點已 highlight:女 thelarche age 從 1990s ~10.5 yo 提早至 2020s ~9.5 yo,男 testicular volume ≥ 4 mL 從 ~11.5 提早至 ~10.5;種族排序為 African American > Hispanic > White > Asian。台灣 cohort 也呈現類似趨勢,但目前 Endocrine Society 仍維持診斷 cutoff(女 < 8 / 男 < 9)以保持 work-up sensitivity,不要因為「現在大家都早」而降低 cutoff

23.4.4 23.2.4 COVID-19 與 puberty timing(2020–2023 多 cohort 觀察)

義大利、土耳其、韓國等多 cohort 報告 lockdown 期間 CPP 與 early puberty consult 顯著上升(部分 cohort 2–3 倍);可能 driver 包括 stress、screen time、obesity、light exposure 改變、endocrine disruptor 接觸增加。台灣兒童內分泌學會 2022 年也有 case series 報告類似 trend。臨床 implication:疫情期間「短時間內 puberty workup 病人爆增」是流行病學現象,不要 overdiagnose 但仍要 work-up 排除 organic cause。

23.4.5 23.2.5 Fetal Origins of Adult Disease(DOHaD)— SGA + premature pubarche 連續譜

低出生體重 / SGA 兒童中,premature pubarche 的比率顯著升高,並且這些孩子在 adolescence-adulthood 期顯著較易發展 PCOS、insulin resistance、metabolic syndrome。我們在臨床看到 6 歲女孩 isolated pubic hair + DHEA-S 升 + 出生 SGA 病史,要把這條當成「未來 metabolic surveillance」的提醒,不只是「premature adrenarche 多 benign」這麼單純。


23.5 23.3 Adrenarche(與 Gonadarche 是兩條獨立軸)

23.5.1 23.3.1 Adrenarche vs Gonadarche — 雙軸差異

我們在 1-Page Summary 第 3 點已列比較表,這裡進一步說明 mechanism。Adrenarche 是 adrenal cortex zona reticularis maturation 的內生過程:

  • Onset:~6–8 yo
  • Driver:CYP17A1 17,20-lyase 活性升 + cytochrome b5 (CYB5A) 共活化 + 3β-HSD2 活性下降 → DHEA / DHEA-S 顯著升(androstenedione 也升)
  • Manifestations:pubic hair(pubarche)、axillary hair、body odor、acne — 都是 androgen target tissue 反應
  • 特殊性獨立於 HPG axis — leptin、kisspeptin、GnRH 都 not involved;adrenarche 提早不代表 puberty 提早

Gonadarche 才是 HPG axis reawakening:onset ~9–13 yo、driven by GnRH pulse → LH/FSH → gonadal steroid → secondary sexual characteristics + reproductive maturation。

23.5.2 23.3.2 為什麼 Adrenarche 早於 Gonadarche

時序設計上,adrenarche 提供「先讓孩子在 social 上適應青春期外觀(pubic hair、體味)但生殖系統還沒啟動」的緩衝期。在演化上,這也提供了「先讓 immune system 為性活動可能的 STD 暴露準備」的可能假說。

23.5.3 23.3.3 Premature Adrenarche / Pubarche — 必查 17-OHP

當 < 8 yo 女 / < 9 yo 男出現 pubic hair / axillary hair / body odor,必須做的事:

  1. Bone age(advanced > 1 yr 須警覺)
  2. DHEA-S + androstenedione + testosterone(confirm adrenal origin)
  3. 17-OHP basal + ACTH-stim(rule out non-classic CAH (21-OHD) — 這是最重要的 catch;若 17-OHP basal > 200 ng/dL → ACTH stim)
  4. TSH + cortisol(rule out 其他 endocrinopathy)

長期 implication:premature pubarche 的孩子,特別是 SGA + 之後出現 hirsutism / oligomenorrhea,要追 PCOS + insulin resistance + metabolic syndrome

23.5.4 23.3.4 Adrenarche 與 Zona Reticularis Maturation — 分子層面

最近 Williams 15e 增補:zona reticularis 在 6–8 yo 期間 CYB5A expression 顯著升 → 強化 CYP17A1 17,20-lyase activity → DHEA / DHEA-S preferred over cortisol pathway;同時 3β-HSD2 expression 在 reticularis 下降 → DHEA 不會被轉成 androstenedione → DHEA-S 累積 → 進入 circulation。這個分子事件與 BMI / leptin / pubertal HPG axis 完全 decoupled


23.6 23.4 Physiology of Puberty(HPG axis 神經內分泌核心)

23.6.1 23.4.1 KNDy Neurons — Puberty Pulse Generator

我們在 1-Page Summary 第 1 點已介紹。這裡進一步擴展:

KNDy neurons(Kisspeptin / Neurokinin B / Dynorphin)位於 hypothalamic arcuate nucleus

  • Co-localization:3 個 neuropeptides 在同一 neuron co-expressed
  • Function:generate pulsatile GnRH release through Kisspeptin-GPR54 (KISS1R) signaling on GnRH neurons
  • Reciprocal regulation
    • NKB(neurokinin B)— 自分泌 NK3R 上 KNDy neurons → 強化 kisspeptin release(正回饋
    • Dynorphin — 自分泌 KOR 上 KNDy neurons → 抑制 kisspeptin(負回饋 reset
    • 兩者交替形成 oscillator(self-sustaining pulse generator)

第二個 kisspeptin population — AVPV (Anteroventral Periventricular nucleus):負責 estrogen positive feedback for LH surge(mid-cycle ovulation trigger);女性才有顯著表現;男性 AVPV 較不發達。

23.6.2 23.4.2 Kisspeptin — Puberty Ignition

歷史里程碑: - 1999 KISS1 cloned(原本作為 metastasis suppressor 研究) - 2003–2004 KISS1R inactivating mutation 引起 CHH (no anosmia) → 確認 kisspeptin 是 puberty「ignition」 - 2008 KISS1R activating mutation 引起 CPP 案例報告(罕) - 2024 起 pulsatile kisspeptin 試驗用於 HSDD(hypoactive sexual desire disorder)

KISS1R signaling:Gq/11 → PLC → IP3/DAG → Ca²⁺ influx → GnRH release。

23.6.3 23.4.3 MKRN3 — Brake of Childhood Quiescence

Makorin RING finger 3 (MKRN3) 是 zinc finger E3 ubiquitin ligase,在 hypothalamus 發揮 GnRH brake 作用:

  • Imprintingmaternal allele silenced(imprinted)→ 只有 paternal allele expressed → paternal mutation 才表現 → familial CPP 多 paternal-side 傳
  • Mechanism:Childhood 期間 MKRN3 高度 expressed 持續抑制 puberty;puberty onset 前 MKRN3 expression 顯著下降 → brake 解除
  • Clinical:2013 NEJM 首次報告 MKRN3 mutation 引起 sporadic / familial CPP;目前 most common monogenic CPP cause

類似 brake genes: - DLK1(Delta-like 1 homolog)— 也 paternal imprinted;mutation → CPP(部分伴 metabolic features);2017 後新增 - LIN28B — let-7 microRNA pathway;GWAS 顯著與 menarche timing 相關

23.6.4 23.4.4 HPG Axis Phases of Life

Fetal stage:
   Mid-gestation 起 GnRH pulse 啟動 → fetal LH/FSH 升 → fetal testis (Leydig cell, hCG-driven before fetal LH takes over) → male phenotype

Mini-puberty of infancy:
   Birth 後 placental sex steroid suppression 解除 → HPG 短暫 ramp up
   - 男嬰:LH peak ~3 個月,testosterone 達 200–500 ng/dL;6 個月後 quiescent
   - 女嬰:FSH peak 早期,部分 estradiol 升、有時 vaginal bleeding 罕見;12–24 個月後 quiescent

Childhood quiescence (1–9 yo):
   GnRH pulse 持續 brake;MKRN3 / DLK1 等抑制

Pubertal awakening:
   - Brake gradually 解除(MKRN3 expression ↓)
   - Kisspeptin / NKB / DYN 重新 oscillate
   - GnRH pulse 重啟(先 sleep-related,後 24h)
   - LH/FSH ↑
   - Sex steroid 啟動 secondary sexual characteristics

23.6.5 23.4.5 Mini-puberty of Infancy — 為什麼重要

我們在臨床上常忽略 mini-puberty。它的重要性在於:

  1. Diagnostic window for CHH / Kallmann:男嬰 LH/FSH/T 在 1–6 個月可量;CHH 男嬰會表現 micropenis + cryptorchidism + 此期間 LH/FSH/T 都低(normal infant 應有 surge)
  2. Klinefelter detection:Mini-puberty 期間 LH/FSH 升 + T 偏低(Sertoli/Leydig 部分 dysfunction 已可看見)
  3. Female mini-puberty:12–24 個月內仍有 estradiol 變動 + 偶 vaginal bleeding(罕但不必 panic)

23.6.6 23.4.6 Sleep-Augmented LH Release — Pubertal Onset Hallmark

Pubertal onset 早期表徵之一:sleep-related LH surge(NREM-related)— 白天 LH 仍 prepubertal range,但 sleep onset 後 LH amplitude 顯著升。隨 puberty 進展,LH pulse 逐漸 spread 到 24h 都可量。臨床上若懷疑 early puberty 但白天 LH 仍 prepubertal,可考慮 early-morning (post-sleep) LH 或 overnight sampling。

📍 MCQ(subsection in-line)— Q for 23.4

一名 7 歲女孩 6 個月內 breast bud + pubic hair + 加速生長。Lab:basal LH 0.5 mIU/mL(pubertal range)、estradiol 25 pg/mL、bone age 9 yo(advanced)。MRI sella + brain normal。下列最可能

A. Premature thelarche B. Idiopathic central precocious puberty (CPP) C. McCune-Albright syndrome D. Familial male-limited CPP E. Anorexia nervosa

答案:B

解析: - B 對:女 < 8 yo + Tanner progression 6 個月 + pubertal LH (≥ 0.3) + advanced bone age + MRI normal = idiopathic CPP;女性 CPP 90% idiopathic(與男性 50% organic 相反) - A 錯:premature thelarche 純 breast 無 pubic hair / growth spurt / bone advance;多自限 - C 錯:McCune-Albright LH suppressed(peripheral PP),題目 LH pubertal - D 錯:familial male-limited CPP 限男性 - E 錯:anorexia 是 puberty delay - 🌶️ Pearl:女性 CPP 若 > 6 yo + MRI normal → 多 idiopathic;< 6 yo 必 careful CNS work-up;男性 CPP 永遠 imaging。


23.7 23.5 Normal Pubertal Development(含 Tanner staging + 青春期暫停 / 重新導向)

23.7.1 23.5.1 Tanner Staging — 男女 hallmark

我們在 1-Page Summary 第 2 點已給出完整表。最重要的考點

  • breast bud (thelarche) 是 first sign(Tanner B2);之後 pubic hair → growth spurt(Tanner 2-3 高峰)→ menarche(多 Tanner 4,~12.5 yo)
  • testicular volume ≥ 4 mL 是 first sign(不是 pubic hair!);之後 penile growth → pubic hair → growth spurt(晚期 Tanner 3-4 高峰,比女晚 ~2 yr)
  • Pubic hair 兩性都有:女多 follow thelarche;男 follow testicular enlargement;但 pubic hair 也可獨立由 adrenarche 驅動(不必然代表 gonadarche)

23.7.2 23.5.2 Physical Changes at Puberty — 系統性 review

系統 Pubertal change
Growth Pubertal growth spurt:女 Tanner 2–3 高峰(PHV ~9 cm/yr)、男 Tanner 3–4 高峰(PHV ~10 cm/yr);男 final 高 ~13 cm 因 puberty 較晚啟動 + 高峰較高
Bone ~50% adult bone mass 在 puberty 期累積(PBM peak ~18–25 yo);epiphyseal closure 由 estrogen 驅動(兩性都需)
Body composition 女體脂 ↑(gynoid 分布);男 lean mass ↑ + 肩寬 ↑
Skin Sebaceous gland 活化(acne)、apocrine sweat gland 啟動(body odor)
CNS / behavior Mood swings、risk-taking ↑(prefrontal cortex maturation 落後 limbic system)、sleep phase delay、libido onset
Metabolic Insulin resistance 短暫升(puberty 期 physiologic)→ T1DM 控制變差時要想到此因素;HOMA-IR 多在 Tanner 3 高峰

23.7.3 23.5.3 Hormonal Changes in Puberty

男性: - LH/FSH ↑(LH 早於 FSH)→ Leydig cell testosterone 合成 + Sertoli cell spermatogenesis - Testosterone:兒童 < 30 ng/dL → adult 300–1000 ng/dL(Tanner 2 起明顯升) - Inhibin B(Sertoli marker):兒童偏低 → puberty 期升至 adult level

女性: - FSH ↑ 早於 LH → ovarian follicle recruitment + estradiol 升 - Estradiol:兒童 < 20 pg/mL → adult cyclic 30–400 pg/mL;先 unidirectional 升啟動 thelarche,之後 cyclic(menarche 後) - Progesterone:menarche 早期多 anovulatory cycle(無 progesterone);regular ovulatory cycle 多 menarche 後 1–2 yr

23.7.4 23.5.4 Behavioral Changes During Puberty

  • Mood / self-image:女在 puberty 早期 self-image 較負面(vs 男 self-image 較正面 with muscle 發展)
  • Risk-taking:limbic system maturation > prefrontal cortex → impulsive decision、risk-taking ↑;early puberty → 風險行為更早
  • Sexuality:libido onset、attraction、social pressure
  • Sleep:melatonin secretion phase delay → 晚睡晚起;school timing mismatch 是 adolescent sleep deprivation 主因

23.7.5 23.5.5 Adolescent Growth — 與 Ch 22 連動

Pubertal growth spurt 是 puberty 期最 visible hallmark: - :PHV ~9 cm/yr at Tanner B2-B3;後期 epiphyseal closure(estradiol-driven,Tanner 4-5 期) - :PHV ~10 cm/yr at Tanner G3-G4;後期 epiphyseal closure(aromatized estradiol-driven,男也是 estradiol 收 epiphysis)

(Ch 22 詳述 GH-IGF1 + sex steroid 協同;本章只 highlight)

23.7.6 23.5.6 Transgender Adolescent Care — Stage 1 (GnRH agonist, reversible)

當青少年表達 gender dysphoria,已被 multidisciplinary team(adolescent psychiatry + endocrinology + family)評估後確診:

  • Indication:早期 puberty (Tanner 2-3) + gender dysphoria 持續 + multidisciplinary assessment
  • GnRH agonist:leuprolide / triptorelin / histrelin implant
  • Reversible:停藥後 endogenous puberty resume normally
  • Goal暫停 puberty progression to give time for psychological assessment + family preparation
  • 2024 Endocrine Society guideline (revised):強調 multidisciplinary flexibility、不死守固定 cutoff age;強調 informed consent + 心理評估持續

23.7.7 23.5.7 Transgender Adolescent Care — Stage 2 (Cross-sex Hormone Therapy)

Timing:通常 ~16 yo 或經 multidisciplinary team flexibility(過去固定 16,現代依個案)

Trans-male(FtM): - Testosterone: - testosterone enanthate / cypionate 50–200 mg IM q2-4 wk - testosterone gel 50–100 mg/day - 漸增 to adult dose - Effects(irreversible):voice deepening、body hair、muscle mass、clitoromegaly、cessation of menses - Adverse:erythrocytosis、acne、hirsutism、liver enzymes elevation - 不需 anti-estrogen(testosterone 自會抑 estrogen via HPG feedback + endometrial atrophy)

Trans-female(MtF): - Estrogen: - 17β-estradiol oral 1–6 mg/day or transdermal patch 25–200 μg/day or IM 5–30 mg q2 wk - 避用 ethinylestradiol(thrombosis risk 顯著高於 17β-estradiol) - Antiandrogen: - Spironolactone 100–300 mg/day - GnRH agonist 持續使用 - Cyproterone acetate(歐洲) - Effects:breast development(部分 reversible)、softer skin、redistribution of body fat、testicular atrophy、erection / libido decrease - Adverse:thrombosis(特別 ethinylestradiol)、hyperprolactinemia、breast cancer (theoretical)、cardiovascular disease

23.7.8 23.5.8 Transgender Adolescent Care — Reversibility 三分法

Stage / 治療 Reversibility
Stage 1 GnRH agonist 完全 reversible(停藥 puberty resume)
Stage 2 estrogen — breast development 部分 reversible(停藥 ductal 部分留)
Stage 2 testosterone — voice deepening / body hair / clitoromegaly 不可逆(permanent)

Informed consent 必清楚說明三分法 — 這是 Stage 2 啟動前必走流程。

23.7.9 23.5.9 Transgender Adolescent Care — Monitoring

  • Hormone levels at 3–6 個月 intervals
  • BMI、BP、metabolic markers(lipids、glucose)
  • Bone density(pubertal pause 期 + 後續持續監測)
  • Mental health follow-up(multidisciplinary)
  • Sex-specific cancer screening(mammography for breast development、prostate for testes-retained MtF)

23.7.10 23.5.10 台灣 transgender adolescent 實務 context

  • 台灣目前 GnRH agonist (leuprolide / triptorelin) 健保未給付 transgender indication(off-label,自費 $4000–8000/月)
  • 17β-estradiol patch / 口服、testosterone enanthate 自費可取得;spironolactone 健保有
  • Multidisciplinary team 在台灣兒童內分泌中心(台大、林口長庚、高醫等)逐步建立
  • 法律 / 戶籍性別變更需手術後申請(與 medical guideline 不完全一致)

23.8 23.6 Delayed Puberty(鑑別三大類)

23.8.1 23.6.1 定義 + 三大類別

Definition: - 女 13 yo 仍無 thelarche - 男 14 yo 仍 testes < 4 mL

鑑別三大類

類別 LH/FSH 代表
Constitutional Delay of Growth and Puberty (CDGP) 低 / 低 normal(自限) Most common 男性 (60–80%);family Hx delayed puberty + bone age delay;final height normal
Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (central) Low LH/FSH Kallmann (KAL1/FGFR1/PROK2/CHD7) + anosmia;CHH without anosmia (KISS1R, GnRHR, etc); pituitary tumor / craniopharyngioma; functional (anorexia, FHA, athletic, chronic illness)
Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (primary) High LH/FSH Klinefelter (47,XXY);Turner (45,X);POI;orchitis / chemo-RT;anorchia;NR5A1 / CYP17 / DHEA biosynthetic defect

23.8.2 23.6.2 CDGP vs Kallmann/CHH 鑑別流程

當 14 yo 男孩 testes < 4 mL(或女孩 13 yo no thelarche),LH/FSH 都低時,最常見鑑別困難在 CDGP vs Kallmann/CHH。我們的演算法:

14 yo 男孩 testes < 4 mL
   ↓
Family Hx delayed puberty (mom > 14 menarche, dad > 17 shave)?
   YES → 多 CDGP
   NO  → 仍可能 CDGP,但 Kallmann/CHH 風險 ↑
   ↓
Olfaction test (UPSIT) - anosmia / hyposmia?
   YES → Kallmann
   NO  → 仍可能 CHH or CDGP
   ↓
Inhibin B (Sertoli marker)
   normal high → Kallmann/CHH 較少(Sertoli 仍 functional)→ 多 CDGP
   low → Kallmann/CHH 較可能
   ↓
Genetic test (KAL1 / FGFR1 / PROK2 / CHD7 / KISS1R / GnRHR / TAC3)
   YES mutation → Kallmann/CHH definite
   NO mutation, family Hx pos, inhibin B normal → CDGP, observe 6-12 mo
   ↓
6-12 個月 trial low-dose testosterone (50-100 mg IM monthly):
   Stop 後自然 progress → CDGP (final)
   Stop 後 sink back → Kallmann/CHH

23.8.3 23.6.3 Kallmann / CHH Genetics — 完整 panel

我們在 1-Page Summary 第 11 點已給基因表,這裡補充 panel-level 觀察:

  • WES 對 unexplained CHH 診斷率 ~50–70%;剩餘 case 多 oligogenic(多基因 small effect 累加)或 epigenetic
  • Oligogenicity 概念:~10–15% CHH 病人帶有 ≥ 2 個 known CHH-related variants(複合機制)
  • De novo mutations 占 sporadic CHH 不少
  • Phenotype heterogeneity:同一家系同 mutation 表現可從 normal puberty 到完全 CHH(incomplete penetrance + modifier genes)

23.8.4 23.6.4 CHH 男 vs 女 — 表現差異

CHH 男性: - Mini-puberty 期就有 micropenis + cryptorchidism(如果 prenatal 期 GnRH 不足) - 嬰兒期 LH/FSH/T 都低(normal infant 應有 surge)— 早期診斷 window - Adolescent 期持續 testes < 4 mL + 無 puberty signs

CHH 女性: - 90% 表現 primary amenorrhea - 部分有 sparse pubic hair(adrenarche 仍 normal)但無 thelarche - 不孕為 main complaint(成人期)

23.8.5 23.6.5 Klinefelter Pubertal Course — Hypergonadotropic 代表

(cross-ref Ch 17)

  • 47,XXY;diagnosis 多在 adolescent infertility / delayed puberty / atypical phenotype
  • Early-mid puberty:可能 normal onset(Leydig 起初 functional)— 這也是為什麼 Klinefelter 常 missed in adolescence
  • Late puberty:Leydig hyaline degeneration → testosterone fall + LH/FSH compensatory rise
  • Final phenotype:testes < 5 mL、tall stature、gynecomastia、infertility
  • Treatment
    • Adult TRT
    • Adolescent TRT (Tanner 2-3) 試驗中:可能改善 neurocognitive + bone density;fertility long-term implication 待 RCT 結果(2023–2024 RCT 數據增加)
    • Fertility via TESE-ICSI ~50% sperm 取得率

23.8.6 23.6.6 Functional Hypogonadism / FHA Detail

(cross-ref Ch 15)

  • Mechanism:energy availability ↓ → leptin ↓ → kisspeptin neurons ↓ → GnRH pulse ↓
  • Common triggers
    • Anorexia nervosa
    • Athletic / dance / ballet(low body fat、long-distance running)
    • Chronic illness / stress
  • Lab:low LH/FSH、low estradiol、normal/low prolactin、low IGF-1(biomarker for energy deficit)
  • Bone density:significantly low → fracture risk(female athlete triad / RED-S)
  • Treatment
    • Restore energy availability first-line(nutrition + weight gain + activity reduction + CBT)— 多 6–24 個月恢復
    • CBT for anorexia
    • HRT if persistent + bone loss — 偏好 transdermal 17β-estradiol + cyclic progestin(避過 first-pass + 不抑 IGF-1)
    • 避用 OCP(especially ethinylestradiol-containing):不能 restore leptin/HPG signaling、且 EE 抑 IGF-1 對骨更不利

23.8.7 23.6.7 Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism Due to Hypothalamic-Pituitary Disorders

非 genetic CHH 的常見 acquired cause:

  • Hyperprolactinemia(adenoma / drug / hypothyroid secondary)— 抑 GnRH
  • Pituitary tumor — craniopharyngioma、germinoma、null cell adenoma
  • Pituitary infiltrative:sarcoidosis、histiocytosis、IgG4-related hypophysitis
  • Cranial RT(5–10 年後 risk)
  • Opioid-induced hypogonadism(chronic high-dose opioid)— 越來越被認知為 reversible cause
  • Iron overload(hemochromatosis、thalassemia chronic transfusion)— 鐵沉積在 pituitary

23.8.8 23.6.8 台灣 delayed puberty 實務 context

  • CDGP 在台灣男性 delayed puberty 仍是最常見(60–80%)
  • 6–12 個月 low-dose testosterone trial(testosterone enanthate 50–100 mg IM monthly × 6–12 mo)健保有給付(pediatric endocrinology 開立)
  • Kallmann panel 基因檢測:自費 $15,000–25,000(NGS panel);保險不給付
  • TESE-ICSI 在台灣已成熟;Klinefelter fertility 可期但要早諮詢

📍 MCQ(subsection in-line)— Q for 23.6

一名 16 歲男性 testes < 4 mL、micropenis、anosmia、bone age 12 yo。Family Hx: mother had delayed menarche (15 yo) 但 father puberty timing normal. Lab:LH 0.3、FSH 0.5、testosterone 25 ng/dL、SHBG normal、karyotype 46,XY,inhibin B low。下列最可能

A. CDGP B. Kallmann syndrome C. Klinefelter D. Anorexia nervosa E. Idiopathic delayed puberty

答案:B

解析: - B 對:anosmia + low LH/FSH + low T + low inhibin B + delayed bone age = Kallmann syndrome;KAL1 (X-linked, with synkinesia/renal agenesis) or FGFR1/PROK2/CHD7 等。 - A 錯:CDGP 不 anosmia + inhibin B 多 preserved + 自然 progress with 等待 - C 錯:Klinefelter karyotype 47,XXY + LH/FSH high(hypergonadotropic) - D 錯:男性 anorexia nervosa 罕;inhibin B 不 specific low - E 錯:「idiopathic」要排除 specific causes 後才下;anosmia 強烈指向 Kallmann - 🌶️ Pearl:CDGP vs Kallmann 鑑別 key tools:anosmia (UPSIT) + inhibin B + family Hx + 6-12 mo trial。


23.9 23.7 Precocious Puberty(CPP / PPP / Variants 完整鑑別)

23.9.1 23.7.1 定義 + 三大類別

Definition: - 女 < 8 yo 開始 puberty - 男 < 9 yo 開始 puberty

三大類別(1-Page Summary 第 4 點已詳):

類別 機轉 LH/FSH 代表
Central PP (CPP / GnRH-dependent) HPG axis 早期啟動 → 真 puberty 流程 Pubertal LH (basal LH ≥ 0.3 mIU/mL or GnRH-stim peak ≥ 5) Idiopathic 90% female / 50% male、CNS lesion(hamartoma、glioma、craniopharyngioma、hydrocephalus、cranial RT)、MKRN3、DLK1、KISS1R activating
Peripheral PP (PPP / GnRH-independent) 性 steroid 從非 HPG 來源(gonad / adrenal / 外源) Suppressed LH/FSH(high steroid 反饋抑) McCune-Albright、Familial male-limited CPP(LH receptor activating mut)、CAH virilizing、ovarian/adrenal/testicular tumor、外源性 steroid(OCP misuse、cosmetic cream)
Variants(incomplete) 單一 component 提早,HPG axis 不啟動 Prepubertal Premature thelarche(單純 breast bud,多自限)、Premature adrenarche / pubarche(adrenal androgen 早)、Premature menarche(罕,需 work-up)

23.9.2 23.7.2 CPP Work-up — 4 Step 流程

Step 1 — 確認 puberty progression(連續 6 月)
   - Tanner staging 進展 (vs static)
   - Growth velocity 加速
   - Bone age ≥ 1 yr advanced
   ↓
Step 2 — 確認 GnRH-dependent
   - Basal early-morning LH ≥ 0.3 mIU/mL(sensitive immunoassay)
   - 或 GnRH stim test (leuprolide 20 μg/kg SC, 30/60/120 min sample):peak LH ≥ 5 = pubertal
   - LH:FSH ratio > 1 = pubertal pattern
   - Estradiol(女)/ testosterone(男)pubertal levels
   ↓
Step 3 — 區分 CPP vs PPP
   - CPP = pubertal LH + sex steroid up
   - PPP = suppressed LH + sex steroid up(exogenous or autonomous source)
   ↓
Step 4 — 找 CPP 病因
   - 男孩 CPP → MRI sella + brain 必做(50% organic)
   - 女孩 CPP < 6 yo → MRI 必做
   - 女孩 CPP 6-8 yo → MRI 仍 recommend(hamartoma 漏檢)
   - 6-8 yo 後可考慮分子 test(MKRN3 / DLK1 / KISS1 / KISS1R)

23.9.3 23.7.3 CPP 病因細節

Idiopathic ~90% female / 50% male。

Organic (CNS lesions): - Hypothalamic hamartoma — 最常見 organic cause;ectopic GnRH-secreting;MRI characteristic non-enhancing peduncle near tuber cinereum;GnRH-agonist 仍 effective(hamartoma 同樣 desensitize) - Astrocytoma / glioma of optic pathway / hypothalamus(NF1 共病多) - Craniopharyngioma(少 CPP,多 panhypopituitarism) - Hydrocephalus - Cranial RT — irradiation 後 5–10 年 CPP risk - Neurofibromatosis-1(optic glioma 共病) - Trauma

Genetic: - MKRN3 mutation — most common monogenic CPP;paternal imprinting;familial case 多 paternal-side inheritance - DLK1 mutation — newer CPP cause - KISS1 / KISS1R activating — 罕

23.9.4 23.7.4 CPP Treatment — GnRH Agonist

機轉:persistent GnRH agonist exposure → pituitary gonadotrope desensitization + downregulation → paradoxical suppression of LH/FSH → halt puberty progression

藥物: - Leuprolide acetate (Lupron) depot:每月 7.5–15 mg IM 或每 3 個月 11.25–22.5 mg IM(台灣健保有條件給付) - Triptorelin pamoate (Decapeptyl):每月 3.75 mg IM 或每 3 個月 11.25 mg - Histrelin SC implant (Supprelin LA):12 個月 implant;台灣未上市

Adequate suppression 監測: - 每 3–6 個月 GnRH-stim 或 leuprolide-stim:LH peak < 4 mIU/mL = adequate - 或 LH < 1 random - Sex steroid prepubertal levels - Tanner halt + bone age advancement < chronological

Stop GnRH-agonist 時機: - Bone age 12–12.5(女)/ 13–13.5(男)— 接近自然 puberty timing - 或 height 已達 target - Stop 後 puberty 自然 resume,多 6–12 月恢復;女多 1–2 年後 menarche

Treatment goal: - Increase final adult height(最重要 — 早治療 final height +5–10 cm) - Delay psychosocial / cognitive maturation mismatch - Prevent menarche too early

Adverse effects: - 第一次 dose flare(短期 sex steroid surge)→ 部分病人 vaginal bleeding 在第 2-3 週 - Injection site reaction(depot)/ implant rejection - Mood swings、headache - Bone density mild decrease during treatment(多在 stop 後 catch-up) - Possible 影響 future fertility — 累積 evidence 顯示 normal

23.9.5 23.7.5 Peripheral PP — McCune-Albright Syndrome

McCune-Albright syndrome (MAS)

  • 基因GNAS post-zygotic mosaic activating mutation (R201)不是 germline,所以 phenotype mosaic 不對稱
  • 三聯
    1. Polyostotic fibrous dysplasia(多骨纖維異化)— 不對稱、含 craniofacial、肋骨、長骨
    2. Café-au-lait spots(牛奶咖啡色斑)— 邊緣不規則 “coast of Maine”(vs NF1 “coast of California”)
    3. Endocrine hyperfunction(多軸):
      • Peripheral precocious puberty(女多 ovarian cyst → estrogen / 男 testicular enlargement)
      • Hyperthyroidism(autonomous nodule)
      • GH excess(pituitary gigantism)
      • Cushing syndrome(adrenal nodular hyperplasia)
      • Hyperprolactinemia
      • FGF23-related hypophosphatemic rickets
  • Treatment
    • PPP(女)aromatase inhibitor (letrozole / anastrozole) + tamoxifen — block ovarian estrogen
    • PPP(男):anti-androgen (spironolactone / bicalutamide) + AI(block aromatization)
    • Bone:bisphosphonate for fibrous dysplasia + denosumab consideration
    • 後期 GnRH agonist if CPP 重疊(PPP 後 HPG axis 二次啟動)

23.9.6 23.7.6 Peripheral PP — Familial Male-Limited PP (Testotoxicosis)

  • 基因LHCGR (LH receptor) activating mutation — AD
  • 男性表現:autonomous Leydig cell activation → testosterone ↑ → puberty 4–5 yo
  • 女性 carrier asymptomatic(女 LH receptor 在 ovary 但需要 FSH 共同 — 單純 LH activation 不足以 trigger ovarian function)
  • Lab:T ↑↑、LH suppressed(exogenous-like negative feedback)
  • Treatment:spironolactone / bicalutamide + AI(letrozole / anastrozole);後期 HPG 二次啟動加 GnRH-agonist

23.9.7 23.7.7 Peripheral PP — 其他病因

CAH virilizing forms(cross-ref Ch 13 / Ch 21): - 21-OHD non-classic — premature pubarche / advanced bone age - 21-OHD classical — neonatal salt-wasting + 後期 advanced bone age + final short stature - 11β-OH deficiency — virilization + HTN

Ovarian / Testicular tumors: - Granulosa cell tumor(ovarian)— estrogen-secreting - Sertoli-Leydig tumor — androgen - Leydig cell tumor(男)— testosterone

Adrenal tumors: - Adenoma / carcinoma — virilizing or feminizing

Exogenous sex steroids: - OCP misuse / accidental - Cosmetic cream with estrogen - Testosterone gel transfer from father

23.9.8 23.7.8 Variants — Premature Thelarche / Adrenarche / Menarche

Premature thelarche: - Breast development isolated;多 < 2 yo(infant 期 mini-puberty residual)or 6–8 yo period - 多自限 6–24 個月 - No growth spurt、no bone age advance - Workup:observe 3-6 個月;progression → CPP work-up - Mechanism:unclear;possibly transient ovarian follicle activation;environmental estrogen exposure

Premature adrenarche / pubarche(詳細已在 23.3.3): - Pubic hair / axillary hair / body odor < 8 yo (女) / < 9 yo (男) - Lab:DHEA-S 升、androstenedione 升、testosterone normal-low - Work-up:bone age + 17-OHP(rule out non-classic CAH) - Outcome:多 normal adult;associated PCOS / metabolic risk in adolescence-adulthood(DOHaD)

Premature menarche: - Vaginal bleeding 不伴隨其他 puberty signs - Workup:pelvic US(rule out tumor、foreign body、abuse);careful history - Isolated case 罕;多 underlying cause

23.9.9 23.7.9 台灣 CPP 實務 context

  • 女孩 CPP idiopathic 比率 ~90%;男孩 ~50%(與國際數據一致)
  • Leuprolide depot 健保給付:女 < 8 yo / 男 < 9 yo + bone age advance + LH pubertal + 預估 final height < target — 健保有條件給付(需事前審查)
  • Triptorelin (Decapeptyl) 已上市;自費或部分給付
  • Histrelin implant 台灣未上市
  • Letrozole / anastrozole for MAS / familial male-limited PP:off-label,自費

📍 MCQ(subsection in-line)— Q for 23.7

一名 5 歲女孩 vaginal bleeding 持續 3 月 + irregular café-au-lait spots(“coast of Maine”)+ bone fibrous dysplasia(X-ray)。Lab:LH suppressed、FSH suppressed、estradiol 50 pg/mL(升)、TSH normal。下列最可能

A. Idiopathic CPP B. Premature thelarche C. McCune-Albright syndrome D. Familial male-limited CPP E. Premature adrenarche

答案:C

解析: - C 對:MAS 三聯 polyostotic fibrous dysplasia + irregular café-au-lait(coast of Maine)+ peripheral PP(LH suppressed because 卵巢 autonomous estrogen 反饋抑 HPG);GNAS R201 mosaic mutation。 - A 錯:idiopathic CPP LH pubertal,題目 suppressed。 - B 錯:premature thelarche 不 vaginal bleeding。 - D 錯:familial male-limited 限男性。 - E 錯:adrenarche 是 androgen,不是 estrogen + bleeding。 - 🌶️ Pearl:peripheral PP 三大鑑別「MAS、Familial male-limited、Tumor / CAH」(M-F-T-C)。MAS 治療用 letrozole + tamoxifen(女)/ AI + spironolactone(男)。


23.10 23.8 Self-test MCQ — 章節單點題(Q1-Q20)

23.10.1 Q1(KNDy neuron)

KNDy neuron 主要分泌哪三個 neuropeptide?

A. GnRH, kisspeptin, dopamine B. Kisspeptin, neurokinin B, dynorphin C. CRH, AVP, oxytocin D. Leptin, NPY, GHRH E. Substance P, β-endorphin, GnRH

答案:B

解析:KNDy = Kisspeptin / Neurokinin B / Dynorphin co-localized in arcuate nucleus;驅動 GnRH pulse generator。


23.10.2 Q2(kisspeptin 角色)

KISS1R inactivating mutation 造成?

A. CPP B. CHH (central hypogonadotropic hypogonadism) C. Premature thelarche D. Klinefelter E. Turner

答案:B

解析:KISS1R inactivating → 無 kisspeptin signaling → puberty 不啟動 → CHH(無 anosmia 變體);activating mutation 反而 CPP(罕)。


23.10.3 Q3(MKRN3 imprinting)

MKRN3 mutation 引起 sporadic CPP 的特殊性?

A. AR B. AD with full penetrance C. Paternal imprinting (maternal allele silenced; paternal mutation expressed) D. X-linked recessive E. Mitochondrial

答案:C

解析:MKRN3 在 paternal-imprinted region;maternal allele silenced;paternal mutation 才表現 → familial CPP 多 paternal-side inheritance;2013 NEJM 後成 sporadic CPP 主要 monogenic cause。


23.10.4 Q4(CPP age cutoffs)

性早熟診斷年齡 cutoff?

A. 男 7 / 女 7 B. 男 9 / 女 8 C. 男 10 / 女 9 D. 男 8 / 女 8 E. 男 11 / 女 10

答案:B

解析:Endocrine Society 仍維持 < 8 (女) / < 9 (男);雖 secular trend 提早,cutoffs 不變以維持 work-up sensitivity。


23.10.5 Q5(first sign of male puberty)

男性 puberty 第一個 sign

A. Pubic hair B. Testicular volume ≥ 4 mL C. Voice change D. Growth spurt E. Penile growth

答案:B

解析:男 testicular enlargement (4 mL Tanner 2) 是第一 hallmark;pubic hair 多 follow;growth spurt 晚期 Tanner 3-4。


23.10.6 Q6(first sign of female puberty)

女性 puberty 第一個 sign?

A. Menarche B. Pubic hair C. Breast bud (thelarche) D. Growth spurt E. Acne

答案:C

解析:女 thelarche 是第一個 hallmark (Tanner B2);menarche 多 Tanner 4 (~12.5 yo)。


23.10.7 Q7(CPP work-up — male)

6 yo 男孩 testicular enlargement + bone age advance。第一線必做

A. Genetic test B. MRI sella + brain C. Karyotype D. Pelvic US E. Bone density

答案:B

解析:男孩 CPP 50% organic CNS pathology → MRI 必做 (vs 女孩 90% idiopathic 但仍多 recommend MRI)。


23.10.8 Q8(peripheral PP - LH expectation)

Peripheral precocious puberty 病人 LH 預期?

A. High B. Normal pubertal C. Suppressed(autonomous sex steroid 反饋抑 HPG) D. Variable E. Inhibin B 升

答案:C

解析:peripheral PP 性 steroid 從非 HPG 來(gonad / adrenal / external)→ 反饋抑 LH/FSH → suppressed;CPP 是 LH/FSH pubertal up。


23.10.9 Q9(McCune-Albright triad)

McCune-Albright syndrome 經典三聯?

A. CAH + dwarfism + hypothyroid B. Polyostotic fibrous dysplasia + irregular café-au-lait + endocrine 多軸 hyperfunction C. Marfan + lens dislocation + tall stature D. Klinefelter + tall stature + gynecomastia E. Pheo + medullary thyroid + parathyroid

答案:B

解析:MAS GNAS post-zygotic mosaic R201 → fibrous dysplasia + 不規則 “coast of Maine” café-au-lait + 多軸 endocrine over-function(PPP, hyperthyroid, GH excess, Cushing, hyperprolactinemia, FGF23 rickets)。


23.10.10 Q10(GnRH agonist mechanism)

GnRH agonist 治 CPP 的機轉?

A. Direct gonadal suppression B. Persistent stimulation → pituitary gonadotrope desensitization + downregulation C. Antagonize LH receptor D. Inhibit kisspeptin E. Block androgen receptor

答案:B

解析:GnRH agonist 持續刺激 → gonadotrope receptor desensitization + downregulation → paradoxical 抑 LH/FSH → halt puberty progression。


23.10.11 Q11(CPP treatment goal)

CPP 治療最重要 goal

A. 控制 weight B. 增 final adult height(早治療 +5-10 cm) C. 縮 bone age D. 預防 cancer E. 改善 IQ

答案:B

解析:CPP 不治會 premature epiphyseal closure → final short;GnRH agonist 治療延緩 + restore growth potential 是 primary goal。


23.10.12 Q12(CDGP vs Kallmann differential test)

CDGP vs Kallmann syndrome 鑑別最有用 lab marker

A. Karyotype B. Inhibin B + olfaction (UPSIT) + family Hx C. GnRH stim alone D. Bone age E. IGF-1

答案:B

解析:CDGP inhibin B 多 preserved + family Hx 多 delayed puberty;Kallmann inhibin B low + anosmia / hyposmia + 永久 hypogonadism。


23.10.13 Q13(Kallmann KAL1 X-linked features)

KAL1 (ANOS1) X-linked Kallmann 特徵?

A. Cleft lip/palate B. Anosmia + 30% renal agenesis + synkinesia (mirror movements) C. CHARGE syndrome D. Obesity + leptin deficiency E. Bleeding diathesis

答案:B

解析:KAL1 X-linked Kallmann 經典 features:anosmia + renal agenesis (uni)、synkinesia (mirror);FGFR1 是 cleft lip/palate;CHD7 是 CHARGE;LEPR 是 obesity。


23.10.14 Q14(FHA mechanism)

Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea 主要 機轉?

A. Pituitary tumor B. Ovarian failure C. Energy deficit → leptin ↓ → kisspeptin ↓ → GnRH ↓ D. Adrenal insufficiency E. Hyperprolactinemia

答案:C

解析:FHA energy availability 不足(anorexia / 過度運動)→ leptin ↓ → arcuate kisspeptin neurons ↓ → GnRH pulse ↓;treatment 是 restore energy。


23.10.15 Q15(FHA treatment first-line)

FHA first-line treatment?

A. OCP B. Restore energy availability (nutrition, weight gain, activity reduction) C. GnRH pulsatile D. Cabergoline E. Levothyroxine

答案:B

解析:FHA 根本是 energy deficit;OCP 不解決 leptin/HPG signaling;CBT + nutrition 為 first-line;persistent 才考慮 HRT。


23.10.16 Q16(premature thelarche outcome)

5 yo 女孩 isolated breast development 6 個月,no growth spurt, no bone age advance。最可能

A. CPP B. Premature thelarche (多自限) C. McCune-Albright D. Granulosa cell tumor E. Anorexia

答案:B

解析:isolated breast + no growth + no bone advance + 多自限 = premature thelarche;觀察 3-6 個月、progression → CPP work-up。


23.10.17 Q17(premature pubarche workup)

6 yo 女孩 pubic hair + body odor 半年。Lab DHEA-S 升、testosterone normal、bone age advance 1.5 yr。必須 rule out

A. Klinefelter B. Non-classic CAH (21-OHD) C. Turner D. Marfan E. Sotos

答案:B

解析:premature adrenarche + bone advance + DHEA-S 升 → 必驗 17-OHP rule out non-classic CAH;單純 premature adrenarche 多 benign。


23.10.18 Q18(McCune-Albright PPP treatment 女)

McCune-Albright 5 yo 女孩 vaginal bleeding。最佳藥物

A. Leuprolide B. Letrozole (aromatase inhibitor) + tamoxifen C. Spironolactone D. Estrogen E. Hydrocortisone

答案:B

解析:MAS 女 PPP 是 ovarian autonomous estrogen,不是 GnRH-dependent → GnRH agonist 不 work;用 AI 阻 estrogen 合成 + tamoxifen ER 拮抗(後期 HPG 二次啟動才加 GnRH-agonist)。


23.10.19 Q19(transgender stage 1)

Transgender adolescent stage 1 treatment 機轉?

A. Cross-sex hormone B. GnRH agonist 暫停 puberty (reversible) C. Surgery D. Testosterone E. Estrogen

答案:B

解析:Stage 1 GnRH agonist 暫停 puberty progression、reversible,給予時間心理評估 + multidisciplinary assessment;Stage 2(later)才 cross-sex hormone。


23.10.20 Q20(global secular trend)

過去 30 年女性 thelarche age 趨勢?

A. 沒變化 B. 延後到 12 歲 C. 提早約 1 歲(10.5 → 9.5) D. 提早至 7 歲 E. 兩極化(提早 + 延後)

答案:C

解析:multi-cohort 數據顯示女性 thelarche 從 1990s ~10.5 → 2020s ~9.5;driver 是 obesity、endocrine disruptors、epigenetic、early-life environment;男性 testicular enlargement 也類似 secular trend。


23.11 23.9 核心引用(Williams 15e 章末 references 摘取)

本章直接引用 Williams 15e Ch 23 章末 references 中對 fellow 考試最關鍵的核心文獻。完整 list 見原書 1257 行起。

  1. Carel JC, Léger J. Precocious Puberty. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(22):2366-2377. — CPP work-up + GnRH agonist 治療經典 review
  2. Abreu AP, Dauber A, Macedo DB, et al. Central precocious puberty caused by mutations in the imprinted gene MKRN3. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(26):2467-2475. — MKRN3 paternal imprinting CPP 開山之作
  3. Boehm U, Bouloux PM, Dattani MT, et al. Expert consensus document: European Consensus Statement on congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism — pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2015;11(9):547-564. — Kallmann / CHH 完整 diagnosis + management consensus
  4. Bradley SH, Lawrence N, Steele C, Mohamed Z. Precocious puberty. BMJ. 2020;368:l6597. — CPP 臨床 update
  5. Eugster EA. Treatment of central precocious puberty. J Endocr Soc. 2019;3(5):965-972. — GnRH agonist 治療 evidence 整合
  6. Hembree WC, Cohen-Kettenis PT, Gooren L, et al. Endocrine treatment of gender-dysphoric/gender-incongruent persons: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102(11):3869-3903. — Transgender adolescent care guideline(2024 revision 為延伸)
  7. Boepple PA, Frisch LS, Wierman ME, et al. The natural history of autonomous gonadal function, adrenarche, and central puberty in gonadotropin-independent precocious puberty. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992;75(6):1550-1555. — MAS / familial male-limited PP 後期 CPP overlap 觀察
  8. Sørensen K, Mouritsen A, Aksglaede L, Hagen CP, Mogensen SS, Juul A. Recent secular trends in pubertal timing: implications for evaluation and diagnosis of precocious puberty. Horm Res Paediatr. 2012;77(3):137-145. — Secular trend 經典 review
  9. Eckert-Lind C, Busch AS, Petersen JH, et al. Worldwide secular trends in age at pubertal onset assessed by breast development among girls: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 2020;174(4):e195881. — 2020 全球 secular trend meta-analysis
  10. Stárka L, Dušková M. The role of dehydroepiandrosterone in adrenarche. Physiol Res. 2019;68(Suppl 4):S401-S410. — Adrenarche zona reticularis maturation 分子機轉

23.12 章尾小結(老闆記憶用)

本章 7 個高頻考試 pearl

  1. KNDy = Kisspeptin/NKB/DYN 是 GnRH pulse generator;MKRN3 是 paternal imprinting brake(maternal allele silenced)
  2. 男性 puberty 第一個 sign = testicular volume ≥ 4 mL;女性 = breast bud (thelarche)
  3. CPP(GnRH-dep)LH pubertal;PPP(GnRH-indep)LH suppressed
  4. 男孩 CPP 50% organic → MRI 必做;女孩 90% idiopathic 但 < 6 yo 仍 MRI 必做
  5. McCune-Albright 三聯(fibrous dysplasia + coast-of-Maine café-au-lait + 多軸 endocrine over-function)+ 治療用 letrozole + tamoxifen(女);GnRH agonist 不 work
  6. CDGP vs Kallmann 鑑別四件套 = 嗅覺 (UPSIT) + inhibin B + family Hx + 6–12 mo low-dose T trial 後 takeover
  7. Transgender adolescent:Stage 1 GnRH agonist(reversible)→ Stage 2 cross-sex hormone(~16 yo);reversibility 三分法(reversible / partly / irreversible)必 informed consent

Cross-ref(與其他章對應,深入見 23.10 之後 Cross-ref 表):

  • Ch 5 Neuroendocrinology — KNDy / kisspeptin signaling 深入
  • Ch 6 / Ch 7 Pituitary — gonadotropin axis basics + pituitary lesion CPP
  • Ch 13 Adrenal Cortex — CAH virilizing 鑑別 + MAS Cushing
  • Ch 15 Female Reproductive Axis — FHA / POI
  • Ch 17 The Testes — Klinefelter / Kallmann 詳述
  • Ch 21 DSD — sex differentiation 連動
  • Ch 22 Growth in Children — pubertal growth spurt 細節
  • Ch 24 Transgender Endocrinology — adolescent care 詳述(接續本章)

23.13 23.10 Self-test MCQ — 跨 section 整合題(Q21-Q25)

23.13.1 Q21(Hypothalamic hamartoma — CPP organic cause)

一名 5 歲男孩近 6 個月 testicular enlargement 至 6 mL + pubic hair + 加速生長。Lab:basal LH 1.2 mIU/mL、testosterone 180 ng/dL、bone age 8 yo。MRI sella + brain 顯示 non-enhancing peduncle near tuber cinereum 影像。下列最可能診斷與處置

A. Idiopathic CPP — 觀察即可 B. Hypothalamic hamartoma — 啟動 GnRH agonist C. Craniopharyngioma — 立即手術 D. McCune-Albright — letrozole + tamoxifen E. Familial male-limited CPP — bicalutamide + AI

答案:B

解析: - B 對:MRI 「near tuber cinereum 的 non-enhancing peduncle」是 hypothalamic hamartoma 的 pathognomonic 影像;最常見 CPP organic cause,本身不需切除(surgery 風險 > benefit),用 GnRH agonist 治療(hamartoma 同樣 desensitize)即可 halt puberty + restore final height。 - A 錯:男孩 CPP 50% organic → 「idiopathic」不能在 MRI 有 lesion 時下;且 5 yo 男孩 CPP 必更積極 work-up。 - C 錯:craniopharyngioma 是 suprasellar enhancing/cystic mass,多伴 panhypopituitarism、視野缺損;很少表現 CPP(多 hypopituitarism)。 - D 錯:MAS 是 peripheral PP(LH suppressed)+ café-au-lait + fibrous dysplasia;題目 LH pubertal。 - E 錯:familial male-limited CPP LH suppressed(autonomous LHCGR activation);題目 LH pubertal + MRI lesion 可解釋。 - 🌶️ Pearl男孩 CPP 必 MRI;hamartoma 是 #1 organic cause;非 surgical disease,GnRH-agonist 即可控制。


23.13.2 Q22(McCune-Albright 三聯 + skin pattern + bone)

一名 6 歲女孩 vaginal bleeding 8 個月,皮膚多處 大片 irregular border 棕色斑(“coast of Maine”)跨越中線,X-ray 顯示 多處長骨 ground-glass appearance(polyostotic fibrous dysplasia)。Lab:LH < 0.1(suppressed)、estradiol 80 pg/mL、TSH 0.05(suppressed)、free T4 升、GH 不正常。下列關於此病錯誤

A. GNAS post-zygotic mosaic activating mutation (R201) B. PPP 治療首選 letrozole + tamoxifen C. 多軸 endocrine hyperfunction 含 hyperthyroid + GH excess D. 首選 GnRH agonist 控制 PPP E. 後期 HPG 二次啟動可加 GnRH agonist

答案:D(最不正確)

解析: - D 不對(這是錯誤陳述):MAS 的 PPP 是 GnRH-independent(autonomous ovarian estrogen)→ GnRH agonist 不 work;正確首選是 letrozole(AI)+ tamoxifen(ER 拮抗);只有後期 sex steroid 反覆刺激誘發 HPG axis 二次啟動(CPP overlap)才加 GnRH agonist。 - A 對:GNAS R201 post-zygotic mosaic 是 MAS 分子基礎;不是 germline → 表現 mosaic 不對稱。 - B 對:letrozole + tamoxifen 是 MAS 女 PPP 治療標準。 - C 對:MAS 多軸 endocrine hyperfunction(PPP、hyperthyroid autonomous nodule、GH excess pituitary gigantism、Cushing nodular hyperplasia、hyperprolactinemia、FGF23 hypophosphatemic rickets);題目 TSH suppressed + free T4 升 = autonomous hyperthyroid 符合。 - E 對:MAS 後期確實會 HPG 二次啟動(PPP 早期 estrogen 反覆刺激 maturation),此時 GnRH agonist 才 indicated。 - 🌶️ Pearl:「MAS = PPP + GnRH agonist 不 work」是 fellow 考試經典陷阱;皮膚「coast of Maine」(vs NF1 的 “coast of California” 平滑邊緣)是 MAS 標誌。


23.13.3 Q23(CDGP vs Kallmann — testosterone trial 結果解讀)

一名 15 歲男孩 testes 3 mL、bone age 12 yo、family Hx 父親 17 歲開始刮鬍。Lab:LH 0.4、FSH 0.6、testosterone 35 ng/dL、inhibin B 110 pg/mL(normal-low pubertal range)、karyotype 46,XY、UPSIT olfaction normal。給予 testosterone enanthate 75 mg IM monthly × 6 個月 後停藥;停藥後 3 個月 Tanner 自動進展至 stage 3、testes 8 mL、自發 testosterone 280 ng/dL。下列最可能診斷

A. Kallmann syndrome B. Constitutional Delay of Growth and Puberty (CDGP) C. Klinefelter D. Idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism E. Functional hypogonadism

答案:B

解析: - B 對:CDGP 鑑別 key 完整 — ① Family Hx 父親 delayed puberty(dad 17 歲刮鬍是 late marker)② Inhibin B 仍 preserved(Sertoli function intact)③ No anosmia(UPSIT normal)④ 6 個月 low-dose T trial 後停藥能自發進展(HPG axis 已 priming → 自然 takeover)= 確診 CDGP,只有 timing 延遲,最終 final height 與生育力 normal。 - A 錯:Kallmann 多有 anosmia + inhibin B low + 停藥後 testosterone 重新沉默(永久 deficiency),不會自發 takeover。 - C 錯:Klinefelter karyotype 47,XXY + LH/FSH high(hypergonadotropic);題目 46,XY + LH/FSH 低排除。 - D 錯:IHH 停藥後 HPG 不會自發 reactivate;題目自發 takeover 排除 IHH。 - E 錯:functional hypogonadism 需有明確誘因(anorexia / chronic illness / 過量運動),題目未提;且解除誘因才恢復,非 testosterone trial 後自發 takeover 的 pattern。 - 🌶️ Pearl:CDGP 「priming pump」trial(6-12 個月 low-dose T 後 stop) — 自發 takeover = CDGP;持續沉默 = Kallmann/CHH;inhibin B preserved + UPSIT normal + family Hx 是事前最好的鑑別組合,能避免 unnecessary genetic testing 與長期 TRT。


23.13.4 Q24(FHA — 運動員月經中斷的機轉與處置陷阱)

一名 17 歲長跑女運動員 BMI 17.5、6 個月 amenorrhea(initial menarche 13 yo 起 regular)、bone density Z-score -2.3。Lab:LH 0.8、FSH 1.2、estradiol < 20 pg/mL、prolactin 12 ng/mL、TSH normal、IGF-1 偏低、cortisol normal、karyotype 46,XX。MRI sella normal。下列關於此病人處置何者最正確

A. 立即起始 OCP 恢復月經 B. 立即起始 GnRH pulsatile pump C. First-line 增加熱量攝取 + 減量訓練 + CBT;持續 6-12 個月仍 amenorrhea + bone loss → estrogen + progestin replacement (transdermal estradiol),不用 ethinylestradiol-containing OCP D. 起始 cabergoline E. 起始 levothyroxine

答案:C

解析: - C 對:FHA 根本機轉是 能量不足 → leptin ↓ → kisspeptin ↓ → GnRH pulse ↓;first-line 永遠是 restore energy availability(nutrition + weight gain + activity reduction + CBT);多數 6-24 個月恢復。若持續 + bone loss → transdermal 17β-estradiol + cyclic progestin 補骨保護;避用 OCP(ethinylestradiol)因為 ethinylestradiol 不能 restore leptin/HPG signaling、且抑 IGF-1(對骨更不利)。 - A 錯:OCP 是過去常用但 不解決 leptin/HPG 路徑;近年 guideline 已不建議當作 FHA bone protection first-line(且可能 mask 真正的 metabolic recovery progress)。 - B 錯:GnRH pulsatile pump 是 fertility induction 工具(CHH / Kallmann 想懷孕用);FHA 不是 GnRH 受體 / hypothalamic structural defect,pump 不適合。 - D 錯:prolactin 12(normal)→ 無 hyperprolactinemia → cabergoline 無 indication。 - E 錯:TSH normal → 無 hypothyroid → levothyroxine 無 indication。 - 🌶️ Pearl:FHA 是「female athlete triad / RED-S(Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport)」的 endocrine 表現;low IGF-1 是 energy deficit 的 biomarker;OCP 是「看起來月經來了但 root cause 未解 + 骨繼續流失」的陷阱選擇;transdermal estradiol > oral(避過 first-pass + 不抑 IGF-1)。


23.13.5 Q25(Transgender adolescent — Stage 1/2 timing 與 reversibility 分級)

一名 12 歲 birth-assigned-male 青少年(Tanner stage 2,testicular volume 5 mL)經多學科團隊(adolescent psychiatry + endocrinology + family)評估後確診 gender dysphoria,gender identity female。下列何者最不正確

A. Stage 1 GnRH agonist(如 leuprolide / triptorelin / histrelin implant)暫停 puberty progression,完全 reversible B. Stage 2 cross-sex hormone(17β-estradiol)通常 ~16 yo 或經 multidisciplinary 評估後 flexibility 開始 C. 應避用 ethinylestradiol(thrombosis risk 高) D. Spironolactone 與 testosterone 雙重作用,可同時用於 trans-female 與 trans-male 過渡期 E. Estrogen 引起的 breast development 部分 reversible;testosterone 引起的 voice deepening + body hair 為 irreversible

答案:D(最不正確)

解析: - D 不對(錯誤陳述):spironolactone 是 anti-androgen + aldosterone receptor antagonist,僅用於 trans-female (MtF) 抑男性化;不會用在 trans-male(FtM 是要 masculinize 給 testosterone,加 spironolactone 會反向抵消)。trans-male 過渡期用 testosterone enanthate / cypionate / gel 即可,不需 spironolactone。 - A 對:Stage 1 GnRH agonist(reversible)是青少年 transgender care 的 cornerstone,給予時間心理評估 + 家庭準備;停藥後 endogenous puberty resume normally。 - B 對:Stage 2 cross-sex hormone(estradiol for MtF、testosterone for FtM)通常 ~16 yo 開始;現代 guideline 強調 multidisciplinary flexibility(不死守 16 yo cutoff)。 - C 對:ethinylestradiol thrombosis risk 顯著高於 17β-estradiol;transgender female 應用 17β-estradiol(oral / transdermal patch / IM),避免 ethinylestradiol。 - E 對:reversibility 分級 — GnRH agonist (Stage 1) 完全 reversible / estrogen 引起的 breast 部分 reversible(停藥後乳腺退化但部分 ductal stay)/ testosterone 引起的 voice deepening + body hair / clitoromegaly 為 irreversible;這是 Stage 2 必充分 informed consent 的內容。 - 🌶️ Pearlspironolactone = MtF only(與 GnRH agonist 一起阻 androgen);FtM 給 testosterone alone(不需 anti-estrogen,testosterone 自會抑 estrogen via HPG feedback + endometrial atrophy);reversibility 三分(reversible / partly / irreversible)是 informed consent 必背框架。


23.14 🎯 隨堂 7 Cases 整合表

# 患者 重點線索 診斷 治療轉變
1 7 歲女孩 6 個月內 thelarche + pubic hair + growth spurt + bone age advance + LH pubertal + MRI normal 女 < 8 yo + Tanner progression + LH pubertal + MRI(-) Idiopathic CPP(女 90% idiopathic) 起始 leuprolide depot 月針或 3 月針,q3-6 mo 監測 LH peak < 4 + Tanner halt;bone age 12-12.5 停藥
2 5 歲女孩 vaginal bleeding + irregular café-au-lait(coast of Maine)+ polyostotic fibrous dysplasia + LH suppressed + estradiol 升 三聯 + LH suppressed = peripheral PP McCune-Albright(GNAS R201 mosaic) letrozole + tamoxifen(不用 GnRH agonist)+ bisphosphonate;多軸 surveillance;後期 HPG 二次啟動才加 GnRH agonist
3 5 歲男孩 testicular enlargement 6 mL + LH pubertal + MRI 顯示 tuber cinereum 旁 non-enhancing peduncle 男 < 9 yo + MRI 特徵性影像 Hypothalamic hamartoma (CPP organic) GnRH agonist(不切除,surgery 風險高且 hamartoma 對 GnRH agonist 同樣 desensitize)
4 5 歲女孩 isolated breast bud 6 個月,no growth spurt、no bone advance、LH prepubertal breast 孤立 + 無進展 + 自限傾向 Premature thelarche Observation 3-6 mo;progression → CPP work-up;多 6-24 mo 自限
5 16 歲男 testes < 4 mL + micropenis + anosmia (UPSIT) + LH/FSH 低 + inhibin B 低 + 46,XY anosmia + inhibin B 低 + 持久低 LH/FSH Kallmann syndrome (KAL1 / FGFR1 / PROK2 / CHD7) Adolescent induction:低 dose T(男)2-3 yr ramp up;想生育用 hCG ± FSH 或 pulsatile GnRH;遺傳諮詢
6 15 歲男 testes 3 mL + bone age 12 yo + 父 17 歲刮鬍 + inhibin B preserved + UPSIT normal + 6 mo low-dose T trial 後 自發 takeover family Hx + inhibin B preserved + UPSIT normal + trial 後 takeover Constitutional Delay (CDGP) 6-12 mo low-dose T「priming pump」;停藥後 HPG 自發 takeover;final height + 生育力 normal
7 17 歲女長跑員 BMI 17.5 + 6 mo amenorrhea + LH/FSH 低 + 低 estradiol + 低 IGF-1 + bone Z -2.3 能量不足 + 低 leptin pattern + bone loss FHA / RED-S First-line restore energy + 減訓練 + CBT;持續 + bone loss → transdermal 17β-estradiol + 週期性 progestin避 OCP / ethinylestradiol

23.15 🌟 8 Pearls(考試陷阱與精準醫療反直覺)

  1. 男孩 CPP 50% organic → MRI sella + brain 必做——女孩 CPP 90% idiopathic 但 < 6 yo 仍 MRI 必做;6-8 yo 仍 recommend MRI,因為 hypothalamic hamartoma(最常見 organic cause)影像很 subtle,「near tuber cinereum 的 non-enhancing peduncle」是 pathognomonic。

  2. MKRN3 paternal imprinting 反直覺——maternal allele silenced,只有 paternal mutation 才表現 → familial CPP 家系多 paternal-side 傳;2013 NEJM 後成 sporadic / familial CPP 主要 monogenic cause;DLK1 機轉類似(同樣 paternal imprinted)。

  3. MAS 的 PPP「GnRH agonist 不 work」——這是 fellow 考試經典陷阱;MAS 是 GNAS R201 post-zygotic mosaic 造成 ovarian autonomous estrogen,GnRH-independent → 必須用 letrozole(AI 阻 estrogen 合成)+ tamoxifen(ER 拮抗);只有後期 HPG axis 二次啟動(CPP overlap)才加 GnRH agonist。

  4. 男第一個 puberty sign = testicular volume ≥ 4 mL,不是 pubic hair——pubic hair 多是 adrenarche 來的(adrenal androgen),可在 gonadarche 之前就有;單純 premature pubarche 多是 premature adrenarche,不必然 CPP,必驗 17-OHP rule out non-classic CAH。

  5. CDGP vs Kallmann 用「四件套」鑑別——① family Hx delayed puberty(mom > 14 menarche / dad > 17 刮鬍)② inhibin B preserved(CDGP 仍 Sertoli functional) ③ UPSIT olfaction normal6-12 mo low-dose T trial 後停藥能自發 takeover = CDGP;任何一項不符(特別是 anosmia + inhibin B 低)→ Kallmann/CHH 風險 ↑,送 panel(KAL1/FGFR1/PROK2/CHD7/KISS1R/GnRHR/TAC3)。

  6. Familial male-limited PP(testotoxicosis)= LHCGR activating,男限——女 carrier asymptomatic(女 ovarian function 需 LH + FSH 共同,單純 LH activation 不足以 trigger);T ↑↑ + LH suppressed(autonomous Leydig)→ 治療 spironolactone / bicalutamide + AI(letrozole / anastrozole);後期 HPG 二次啟動加 GnRH agonist。

  7. FHA 的 OCP 是「假月經陷阱」——OCP(especially ethinylestradiol-containing)不能 restore leptin/HPG signaling,且 EE 抑 IGF-1 對骨更不利;first-line 永遠是 restore energy availability(nutrition + 減訓練 + CBT);持續 + bone loss → transdermal 17β-estradiol + 週期性 progestin,不用 OCP

  8. Transgender adolescent reversibility 三分法——Stage 1 GnRH agonist 完全 reversible;Stage 2 estrogen 引起的 breast development 部分 reversible(ductal 部分留);testosterone 引起的 voice deepening + body hair + clitoromegaly 永久不可逆 → informed consent 必充分;spironolactone only for trans-female (MtF),不用在 FtM。


23.16 🔗 Cross-ref to Other Chapters

連到的章節 對位的內容
Ch 5(Neuroendocrinology) KNDy neurons(Kisspeptin/NKB/Dynorphin)arcuate co-localization、kisspeptin-GPR54/KISS1R signaling on GnRH neurons、NKB-NK3R 強化 / Dynorphin-KOR 抑制 oscillator — Ch 23 puberty awakening 的神經內分泌 prerequisite
Ch 6(Anterior Pituitary Physiology) gonadotropin(LH/FSH)axis basics、GnRH pulsatility 與 gonadotrope 反應 — CPP / GnRH agonist desensitization 機轉的 physiology base
Ch 7(Pituitary Tumors) craniopharyngioma 罕引 CPP(多 hypopituitarism 表現)、gonadotropin-secreting adenoma 罕;pituitary lesion 在男孩 CPP MRI work-up 必排
Ch 13(Adrenal — CAH) 21-OHD non-classic CAH 是 premature pubarche / advanced bone age 必 rule out 鑑別;classical 21-OHD 早期 salt-wasting 後期 advanced bone + 早期 epiphyseal closure
Ch 15(Female Reproductive Axis) FHA leptin-kisspeptin 機轉 + female athlete triad / RED-S;POI 鑑別(hypergonadotropic delayed puberty / 早 ovarian failure);Turner syndrome 詳述
Ch 17(The Testes) Klinefelter 47,XXY pubertal course 詳述(早期 Leydig functional → 中後期 hyaline degeneration → testosterone 跌 + LH/FSH 補償升);TESE-ICSI fertility ~50%;Kallmann syndrome 男性管理;adolescent TRT 試驗證據
Ch 21(DSD) sex differentiation defects(46,XY DSD / 46,XX DSD)連動 puberty timing;androgen insensitivity / 5α-reductase deficiency 在 puberty 期表現變化
Ch 22(Growth in Children) pubertal growth spurt(女 Tanner 2-3 / 男 Tanner 3-4 高峰)、bone age 評估、GH-IGF-1 與 sex steroid 協同;short stature workup 與 CPP / CDGP 整合
Ch 24(Transgender Endocrinology) adolescent transition care 詳述(Stage 1/2 + 心理評估 + multidisciplinary);adult cross-sex hormone 長期 surveillance;2024 Endocrine Society guideline revised
Ch 27 / Ch 28(Mineral Metabolism / Bone) FHA bone density loss + fracture risk + transdermal estradiol bone protection;fibrous dysplasia (MAS) bisphosphonate / denosumab;FGF23-related hypophosphatemic rickets in MAS
Ch 14(Adrenal Cortex — Cushing) MAS 的 adrenal nodular hyperplasia Cushing;exogenous glucocorticoid 對 puberty 的 suppression

23.17 📌 必背數字總表(章末整理 ~ 35 條)

國考 / fellow 考試前一週 reading list — 全章必背數字一次到位。

23.17.1 Definition / Age Cutoffs

主題 數字
CPP 診斷年齡 cutoff(女) < 8 yo
CPP 診斷年齡 cutoff(男) < 9 yo
Delayed puberty 定義(女 thelarche 缺) 13 yo 仍無 thelarche
Delayed puberty 定義(男 testicular enlargement 缺) 14 yo 仍 testes < 4 mL
男性 puberty 第一個 sign(testicular volume) ≥ 4 mL(Tanner 2)
女性 menarche 平均年齡 ~ 12.5 yo(Tanner 4)
Adrenarche onset ~ 6-8 yo(早於 gonadarche)
Gonadarche onset ~ 9-13 yo

23.17.2 CPP Lab Cutoffs

主題 數字
Basal early-morning LH cutoff(pubertal) ≥ 0.3 mIU/mL(sensitive immunoassay)
GnRH stim test (leuprolide 20 μg/kg SC) peak LH cutoff ≥ 5 mIU/mL = pubertal
LH:FSH ratio(pubertal pattern) > 1
Bone age advance(CPP) ≥ 1 yr advanced
GnRH agonist adequate suppression LH peak < 4 mIU/mL(stim 後)or < 1 random

23.17.3 CPP Treatment

主題 數字
Leuprolide depot 月針劑量 7.5-15 mg IM 月針
Leuprolide depot 3 月針劑量 11.25-22.5 mg IM q3 mo
Triptorelin pamoate 月針 3.75 mg IM 月針
Triptorelin pamoate 3 月針 11.25 mg IM q3 mo
Histrelin SC implant 持續時間 12 個月(台灣未上市)
Stop GnRH agonist bone age(女) 12-12.5 yo
Stop GnRH agonist bone age(男) 13-13.5 yo
早治療 CPP final adult height 增加 + 5-10 cm
Stop 後 puberty 恢復時間 6-12 個月
Stop 後 menarche 時間(女) 1-2 年

23.17.4 CPP Etiology Distribution

主題 數字
女性 CPP idiopathic 比率 ~ 90%
男性 CPP organic(CNS)比率 ~ 50%(必 MRI)
Hypothalamic hamartoma 在男孩 CPP organic 排名 #1 最常見 organic cause
Cranial RT 後 CPP risk window 5-10 年後

23.17.5 Mini-puberty of Infancy

主題 數字
男嬰 LH peak 時間 ~ 3 個月
男嬰 testosterone peak 200-500 ng/dL
男嬰 mini-puberty 結束 ~ 6 個月
女嬰 mini-puberty 結束 ~ 12-24 個月

23.17.6 Tanner Staging Reference

主題 數字
女 Tanner B2 起始年齡 ~ 10.5 yo(範圍 8-13)
男 Tanner G2(testes ≥ 4 mL)起始年齡 ~ 11.5 yo(範圍 9-14)
Tanner G3 testicular volume 6-12 mL
Tanner G4 testicular volume 15-20 mL
Tanner G5 testicular volume(adult)
20 mL

23.17.7 Genetic / Syndromic

主題 數字 / 特徵
MKRN3 imprinting paternal imprinted(maternal allele silenced)
MKRN3 NEJM 報告年 2013
McCune-Albright mutation GNAS R201 post-zygotic mosaic activating
Familial male-limited CPP mutation LHCGR activating(AD)
KAL1(ANOS1)renal agenesis 比率 30%(unilateral)
WES 對 unexplained CHH 診斷率 50-70%
CDGP 在男性 delayed puberty 比率 60-80%

23.17.8 Secular Trend

主題 數字
女性 thelarche 1990s vs 2020s ~ 10.5 → ~ 9.5(提早 ~ 1 yr)
男性 testes ≥ 4 mL 1990s vs 2020s ~ 11.5 → ~ 10.5
Thelarche timing 種族排序(最早 → 最晚) African American > Hispanic > White > Asian

23.17.9 Transgender Adolescent

主題 數字 / 規範
Stage 1 GnRH agonist 起始 Tanner Tanner 2-3
Stage 2 cross-sex hormone 經典 timing ~ 16 yo(現 multidisciplinary flexibility)
Trans-male testosterone enanthate / cypionate 50-200 mg IM q2-4 wk
Trans-female 17β-estradiol oral 1-6 mg/day
Trans-female estradiol patch 25-200 μg/day
Trans-female spironolactone 抗雄 100-300 mg/day
絕對避用 Ethinylestradiol(thrombosis ↑)

23.17.10 Guideline Year

主題 年份
MKRN3 in CPP(NEJM) 2013
2023 Endocrine Society Pubertal Disorders update 2023
2024 Endocrine Society Transgender Adolescent guideline (revised) 2024
KISS1/KISS1R inactivating mutation 發現 2003-2004
KISS1 cloned 1999

本章 Williams 15e 原文 reference:Argente J, Dunkel L, Kaiser UB, Latronico AC, Lomniczi A, Soriano-Guillén L, Tena-Sempere M. Physiology and Disorders of Puberty. In: Williams Textbook of Endocrinology, 15th ed. Elsevier; 2024.